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100-466: Emydops is an extinct genus of dicynodont therapsids from the Middle Permian to Late Permian of what is now South Africa . The genus is generally small and herbivorous , sharing the dicynodont synapomorphy of bearing two tusks. In the following years, the genus grew to include fourteen species. Many of these species were erected on the basis of differences in the teeth and the positioning of

200-408: A biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging . With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD)

300-446: A combination known as general pathology. Cytopathology (sometimes referred to as "cytology") is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. It is usually used to aid in the diagnosis of cancer, but also helps in the diagnosis of certain infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions as well as thyroid lesions, diseases involving sterile body cavities (peritoneal, pleural, and cerebrospinal), and

400-586: A concerted causal study of disease was underway (see Medicine in ancient Greece ), with many notable early physicians (such as Hippocrates , for whom the modern Hippocratic Oath is named) having developed methods of diagnosis and prognosis for a number of diseases. The medical practices of the Romans and those of the Byzantines continued from these Greek roots, but, as with many areas of scientific inquiry, growth in understanding of medicine stagnated somewhat after

500-438: A conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including immunofluorescence , immunohistochemistry , electron microscopy , flow cytometry , and molecular-pathologic analysis. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of

600-568: A dicynodont, and the name Cryptodontia is no longer used. Thomas Henry Huxley revised Owen's Dicynodontia as an order that included Dicynodon and Oudenodon . Dicynodontia was later ranked as a suborder or infraorder with the larger group Anomodontia, which is classified as an order. The ranking of Dicynodontia has varied in recent studies, with Ivakhnenko (2008) considering it a suborder, Ivanchnenko (2008) considering it an infraorder, and Kurkin (2010) considering it an order. Many higher taxa, including infraorders and families, have been erected as

700-778: A distinct field of inquiry during the 19th Century through natural philosophers and physicians that studied disease and the informal study of what they termed "pathological anatomy" or "morbid anatomy". However, pathology as a formal area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the advent of detailed study of microbiology . In the 19th century, physicians had begun to understand that disease-causing pathogens, or "germs" (a catch-all for disease-causing, or pathogenic, microbes, such as bacteria , viruses , fungi , amoebae , molds , protists , and prions ) existed and were capable of reproduction and multiplication, replacing earlier beliefs in humors or even spiritual agents, that had dominated for much of

800-443: A distinct outer rim that is most developed around the canines. Anteriorly, the rim continues slightly downwards and forms the tip of the upper beak. The orbits are positioned far anteriorly in the skull, and face forward and upward. The temporal region is large in proportion to the face and provides attachment for the laterodorsal trigeminal musculature of enormous bulk. In dorsal view, the temporal vacuities are described to be large and

900-525: A fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin , although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and

1000-471: A general examination or an autopsy ). Anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology , cytopathology , and forensic pathology . Anatomical pathology is one of two main divisions of the medical practice of pathology, the other being clinical pathology, the diagnosis of disease through the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids and tissues. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology,

1100-458: A large mammal, probably a diprotodontid . With the decline and extinction of the kannemeyerids, there were to be no more dominant large synapsid herbivores until the middle Paleocene epoch (60 Ma) when mammals , distant descendants of cynodonts , began to diversify after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. Dicynodontia was originally named by the English paleontologist Richard Owen . It

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1200-524: A large variety of ecotypes, including large, medium-sized, and small herbivores and short-limbed mole-like burrowers. Only four lineages are known to have survived the Great Dying ; the first three represented with a single genus each: Myosaurus , Kombuisia , and Lystrosaurus , the latter being the most common and widespread herbivores of the Induan (earliest Triassic ). None of these survived long into

1300-613: A list of characteristics that was used in the analysis, was based on that of Kammerer et al. (2011), which followed a comprehensive taxonomic revision of Dicynodon . Because of this, many of the relationships found by Kammerer et al. (2013) are the same as those found by Kammerer et al. (2011). However, several taxa were added to the analysis, including Tiarajudens , Eubrachiosaurus , Shaanbeikannemeyeria , Zambiasaurus , and many "outgroup" taxa (positioned outside Anomodontia), while other taxa were re-coded. As in Kammerer et al. (2011),

1400-711: A means of classifying the large number of dicynodont species. Cluver and King (1983) recognised several main groups within Dicynodontia, including Eodicynodontia (containing only Eodicynodon ), Endothiodontia (containing only Endothiodontidae ), Pristerodontia ( Pristerodontidae , Cryptodontidae , Aulacephalodontidae , Dicynodontidae , Lystrosauridae , and Kannemeyeriidae ), Kingoriamorpha (containing only Kingoriidae ), Diictodontia ( Diictodontidae , Robertiidae , Cistecephalidae , Emydopidae and Myosauridae ), and Venyukoviamorpha . Most of these taxa are no longer considered valid. Kammerer and Angielczyk (2009) suggested that

1500-437: A number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures . Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology , the study of an organism's immune response to infection,

1600-536: A pathologist generally requires specialty -training after medical school , but individual nations vary some in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians ( D.O. or M.D. ) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency . Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by

1700-416: A significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer , the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection , and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses . In a similar fashion,

1800-458: A skull in 2003. This suggested to indicate that dicynodonts survived into the Cretaceous in southern Gondwana . The dicynodont affinity of these specimens was questioned (including a proposal that they belonged to a baurusuchian crocodyliform by Agnolin et al. in 2010), and in 2019 Knutsen and Oerlemans considered this fossil to be of Plio - Pleistocene age, and reinterpreted it as a fossil of

1900-425: A suspicious lesion , whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining

2000-459: A vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice , varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding

2100-459: A wide range of other body sites. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments (in contrast to histopathology, which studies whole tissues) and cytopathologic tests are sometimes called smear tests because the samples may be smeared across a glass microscope slide for subsequent staining and microscopic examination. However, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation . Dermatopathology

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2200-418: A wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi , oomycetes , bacteria , viruses , viroids , virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas , protozoa , nematodes and parasitic plants . Damage caused by insects , mites , vertebrate , and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with

2300-520: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Dicynodont see " Taxonomy " Dicynodontia is an extinct clade of anomodonts , an extinct type of non-mammalian therapsid . Dicynodonts were herbivores that typically bore a pair of tusks, hence their name, which means 'two dog tooth'. Members of the group possessed a horny, typically toothless beak, unique amongst all synapsids . Dicynodonts first appeared in Southern Pangaea during

2400-496: Is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive . Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of

2500-445: Is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound , CT scan , or magnetic resonance imaging . Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of

2600-428: Is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that focuses on the skin and the rest of the integumentary system as an organ. It is unique, in that there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. All general pathologists and general dermatologists train in the pathology of the skin, so the term dermatopathologist denotes either of these who has reached a certain level of accreditation and experience; in

2700-404: Is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences . Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar ). Although

2800-521: Is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology , and neuropathology. All postgraduate medical training and education in the UK is overseen by the General Medical Council. In France, pathology

2900-411: Is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods,

3000-439: Is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the distinct but deeply interconnected aims of biological research and medical practice . Biomedical research into disease incorporates the work of a vast variety of life science specialists, whereas, in most parts of the world, to be licensed to practice pathology as a medical specialty, one has to complete medical school and secure a license to practice medicine. Structurally,

3100-405: Is highly specialised, light but strong, with the synapsid temporal openings at the rear of the skull greatly enlarged to accommodate larger jaw muscles. The front of the skull and the lower jaw are generally narrow and, in all but a number of primitive forms, toothless. Instead, the front of the mouth is equipped with a horny beak, as in turtles and ceratopsian dinosaurs . Food was processed by

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3200-620: Is known from the La Belle France cave in South Africa , often conflated with the Dingonek . It may be based on dicynodont fossils. Pathological As a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses components of disease: cause, mechanisms of development ( pathogenesis ), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations). In common medical practice, general pathology

3300-514: Is mostly concerned with analyzing known clinical abnormalities that are markers or precursors for both infectious and non-infectious disease, and is conducted by experts in one of two major specialties, anatomical pathology and clinical pathology . Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types (comparing, for example, cytopathology , hematopathology , and histopathology ), organs (as in renal pathology ), and physiological systems ( oral pathology ), as well as on

3400-456: Is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology

3500-715: Is represented by a related field " molecular pathological epidemiology ". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR , DNA microarray , in situ hybridization , DNA sequencing , antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance . Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology

3600-411: Is separated into two distinct specialties, anatomical pathology, and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists . At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of

3700-427: Is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells , red blood cells , and platelets ) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow ,

3800-530: Is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy

3900-423: Is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase

4000-499: Is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy —the field

4100-500: Is unusual in that it has two pairs of tusks. The second pair of tusks is not seen in any other dicynodont, and is a feature unique to the specimen. The extra tusks are considered a pathological feature; they are thought to have been the result of a mutation in the individual and are not considered a defining characteristic of the species. Robert Broom first came up with the name Emydops in 1912 when describing small dicynodonts with unserrated postcanines. The validity of E. minor and

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4200-597: Is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association , and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on

4300-523: The Classical Era , but continued to slowly develop throughout numerous cultures. Notably, many advances were made in the medieval era of Islam (see Medicine in medieval Islam ), during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed, also based on the Greek tradition. Even so, growth in complex understanding of disease mostly languished until knowledge and experimentation again began to proliferate in

4400-452: The Renaissance , Enlightenment , and Baroque eras, following the resurgence of the empirical method at new centers of scholarship. By the 17th century, the study of rudimentary microscopy was underway and examination of tissues had led British Royal Society member Robert Hooke to coin the word " cell ", setting the stage for later germ theory . Modern pathology began to develop as

4500-585: The Upper Permian , thanks to their masticatory apparatus. When Emydops ate, the cutting of material happened at the beak when the external adductor muscles applied a vertical force (jaw elevated). Later on in the masticatory cycle, the dentary teeth also did cutting when the external adductor muscles applied an even stronger horizontal force (jaw retracted). The bottom teeth of Emydops are described as pear-shaped: they have wide, blunt anterior edges and sharp, strongly serrated posterior edges, suggesting that

4600-504: The frontal and parietal bones . A 2008 study narrowed Emydops down to two species, E. arctatus (first described by English paleontologist Richard Owen as Kistecephalus arctatus in 1876) and the newly described E. oweni . Emydops was first discovered and named in 1912 by Robert Broom , in which he described the species E. minor . Although later on it was suggested that the genus included 13 more species, Frobisch and Reisz (2008) suggests that only E. oweni and E. arctatus are

4700-524: The ilium are large and strong. The tail is short. Pentasauropus dicynodont tracks suggest that dicynodonts had fleshy pads on their feet. Mummified skin from specimens of Lystrosaurus in South Africa have numerous raised bumps. Dicynodonts have long been suspected of being warm-blooded animals. Their bones are highly vascularised and possess Haversian canals , and their bodily proportions are conducive to heat preservation. In young specimens,

4800-409: The kidneys . In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons , who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy , and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus ,

4900-416: The lungs and thoracic pleura . Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT -guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery . These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation , or fibrotic conditions. Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of

5000-488: The lymph nodes , thymus , spleen , and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of

5100-640: The mid-Permian , ca. 270–260 million years ago, and became globally distributed and the dominant herbivorous animals in the Late Permian , ca. 260–252 Mya. They were devastated by the end-Permian Extinction that wiped out most other therapsids ca. 252 Mya. They rebounded during the Triassic but died out towards the end of that period. They were the most successful and diverse of the non-mammalian therapsids, with over 70 genera known, varying from rat-sized burrowers to elephant-sized browsers . The dicynodont skull

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5200-475: The tubules and interstitium , the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists , medical subspecialists , dermatologists , and interventional radiologists . Often an excised tissue sample

5300-533: The 1530s. The study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Rudimentary understanding of many conditions was present in most early societies and is attested to in the records of the earliest historical societies , including those of the Middle East , India , and China . By the Hellenic period of ancient Greece ,

5400-534: The American Board of Pathology: [anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine . Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In

5500-469: The British Museum . By this time, many more dicynodonts had been described. In 1859, another important species called Ptychognathus declivis was named from South Africa. In the same year, Owen named the group Dicynodontia. In his Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue , Owen honored Bain by erecting Bidentalia as a replacement name for his Dicynodontia. The name Bidentalia quickly fell out of use in

5600-575: The English paleontologist Richard Owen named two species of dicynodonts from South Africa: Dicynodon lacerticeps and Dicynodon bainii . Since Bain was preoccupied with the Corps of Royal Engineers, he wanted Owen to describe his fossils more extensively. Owen did not publish a description until 1876 in his Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the Collection of

5700-504: The Permian extinction. A 2024 paper posited that rock art of a superficially walrus-like imaginary creature with downcurved tusks created by the San people of South Africa prior to 1835 may have been partly inspired by fossil dicynodont skulls which erode out of rocks in the area. Dicynodonts have been known to science since the mid-1800s. The South African geologist Andrew Geddes Bain gave

5800-826: The Triassic. The fourth group was the Kannemeyeriiformes , the only dicynodonts who diversified during the Triassic. These stocky, pig- to ox-sized animals were the most abundant herbivores worldwide from the Olenekian to the Ladinian age. By the Carnian they had been supplanted by traversodont cynodonts and rhynchosaur reptiles. During the Norian (middle of the Late Triassic), perhaps due to increasing aridity, they drastically declined, and

5900-484: The US, either a general pathologist or a dermatologist can undergo a 1 to 2 year fellowship in the field of dermatopathology. The completion of this fellowship allows one to take a subspecialty board examination, and becomes a board certified dermatopathologist. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to

6000-671: The United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council . The training to become a pathologist is under the oversight of the Royal College of Pathologists . After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years and includes specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It

6100-429: The accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses

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6200-429: The activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming

6300-481: The basis of the focus of the examination (as with forensic pathology ). Pathology is a significant field in modern medical diagnosis and medical research . The Latin term pathology derives from the Ancient Greek roots pathos ( πάθος ), meaning "experience" or "suffering", and -logia ( -λογία ), meaning "study of". The term is of early 16th-century origin, and became increasingly popularized after

6400-767: The bones are so highly vascularised that they exhibit higher channel densities than most other therapsids. Yet, studies on Late Triassic dicynodont coprolites paradoxically showcase digestive patterns more typical of animals with slow metabolisms. More recently, the discovery of hair remnants in Permian coprolites possibly vindicates the status of dicynodonts as endothermic animals. As these coprolites come from carnivorous species and digested dicynodont bones are abundant, it has been suggested that at least some of these hair remnants come from dicynodont prey. A new study using chemical analysis seemed to suggest that cynodonts and dicynodonts both developed warm blood independently before

6500-525: The diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic , infectious, epithelial , salivary gland , bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology . Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists ,

6600-442: The disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As

6700-420: The examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery , biopsy , or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in

6800-580: The first description of dicynodonts in 1845. At the time, Bain was a supervisor for the construction of military roads under the Corps of Royal Engineers and had found many reptilian fossils during his surveys of South Africa. Bain described these fossils in an 1845 letter published in Transactions of the Geological Society of London , calling them "bidentals" for their two prominent tusks. In that same year,

6900-477: The following years, replaced by popularity of Owen's Dicynodontia. Dicynodonts first appeared during the Middle Permian in the Southern Hemisphere, with South Africa being the centre of their known diversity, and underwent a rapid evolutionary radiation , becoming globally distributed and amongst the most successful and abundant land vertebrates during the Late Permian . During this time, they included

7000-504: The hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies. Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids . Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology , biochemistry , proteomics and genetics . It

7100-425: The human host. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, a general principle of approach that persists in modern medicine. Modern medicine was particularly advanced by further developments of the microscope to analyze tissues, to which Rudolf Virchow gave a significant contribution, leading to a slew of research developments. By

7200-431: The identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation ) but typically a minimal requirement is a medical doctorate with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify

7300-490: The imaging technologies of X-ray radiography ) magnetic resonance imaging , medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy , elastography , tactile imaging , thermography , medical photography , nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography . Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography , magnetoencephalography , and electrocardiography often give hints as to

7400-711: The interrelationships of non- kannemeyeriiform dicynodontoids are weakly supported and thus vary between the analyses. Biseridens Anomocephalus Tiarajudens Patranomodon Suminia Otsheria Ulemica Galepus Galechirus Galeops "Eodicynodon" oelofseni Eodicynodon oosthuizeni Colobodectes Lanthanostegus Chelydontops Endothiodon Pristerodon Diictodon Eosimops Prosictodon Robertia Emydops Dicynodontoides Kombuisia Myosaurus Cistecephalus Cistecephaloides Kawingasaurus Bidentalia Dicynodonts were dominant tetrapod herbivores most of

7500-435: The largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to

7600-431: The late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty. Combined with developments in the understanding of general physiology , by the beginning of the 20th century, the study of pathology had begun to split into a number of distinct fields, resulting in the development of a large number of modern specialties within pathology and related disciplines of diagnostic medicine . The modern practice of pathology

7700-435: The latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing . Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology. Becoming

7800-448: The mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals , mammals generally have

7900-515: The only valid species of Emydops . With the appearance of E. minor marking the beginning of the stratigraphic range of Emydops in the Late Permian -aged Tropidostoma Assemblage Zone from the Karoo Basin of South Africa , it is argued that a specimen found in the vicinity of the Middle Permian to Late Permian Tapinocephalus Assemblage Zone and Middle Permian Pristerognathus Assemblage Zone of Beauford West belongs to Emydops . Whether

8000-406: The presence of tusks has been suggested to be sexually dimorphic . Some dicynodonts such as Stahleckeria lacked true tusks and instead bore tusk-like extensions on the side of the beak. The body is short, strong and barrel-shaped, with strong limbs. In large genera (such as Dinodontosaurus ) the hindlimbs were held erect, but the forelimbs bent at the elbow. Both the pectoral girdle and

8100-518: The presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of toxicology on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of physical trauma . Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of forensic science . Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue . Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to

8200-472: The previous 1,500 years in European medicine. With the new understanding of causative agents, physicians began to compare the characteristics of one germ's symptoms as they developed within an affected individual to another germ's characteristics and symptoms. This approach led to the foundational understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves, and that they can have many profound and varied effects on

8300-485: The previous diagnosis. Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine , as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry , clinical microbiology , hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists , hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer

8400-470: The problematic taxonomy and nomenclature of Dicynodontia and other groups results from the large number of conflicting studies and the tendency for invalid names to be mistakenly established. Below is a cladogram modified from Angielczyk et al. (2021): Nyaphulia Eodicynodon Colobodectes Lanthanostegus Pylaecephalidae Eumantellidae Brachyprosopus Endothiodontia Emydopoidea Bidentalia A horned serpent cave art

8500-495: The reflected lamina of the angular bone of Emydops has a broad, thin, unsupported sheet that terminates in a long, free border rather than the sheet folding and converging anteriorly toward a marginal thickening on the angular body. As well, a broadened lateral dentary shelf on the lower jaw serves as another distinguishing feature of the genus. Most skulls of Emydops bear a pair of caniniform tusks, diagnostic of dicynodonts , There are generally three postcanine teeth present in

8600-508: The resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology , and neurosurgery . In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology

8700-478: The retraction of the lower jaw when the mouth closed, producing a powerful shearing action, which would have enabled dicynodonts to cope with tough plant material. Dicynodonts typically had a pair of enlarged maxillary caniniform teeth, analogous to the tusks present in some living mammals. In the earliest genera, they were merely enlarged teeth, but in later forms they independently evolved into ever-growing teeth like mammal tusks multiple times. In some dicynodonts,

8800-539: The role of large herbivores was taken over by sauropodomorph dinosaurs. Fossils of an Asian elephant -sized dicynodont Lisowicia bojani discovered in Poland indicate that dicynodonts survived at least until the late Norian or earliest Rhaetian (latest Triassic); this animal was also the largest known dicynodont species. Six fragments of fossil bone discovered in Queensland , Australia, were interpreted as remains of

8900-602: The skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions (" rashes ") and neoplasms . Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine. Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by post-mortem examination of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm

9000-478: The specimen is from the Tapinocephalus Assemblage Zone or Pristerognathus Assemblage Zone , both indicate that Emydops stratigraphic range began earlier than it has been previously accepted. The skull of Emydops is small, up to 5 cm (2 in) long. The premaxillae and maxillae of Emydops are less pronounced than those of more mature dicynodonts , and they are generated downward as

9100-517: The state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics . It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: Psychopathology is the study of mental illness , particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology , its purpose

9200-474: The study of disease is divided into many different fields that study or diagnose markers for disease using methods and technologies particular to specific scales, organs , and tissue types. Anatomical pathology ( Commonwealth ) or anatomic pathology ( United States ) is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross , microscopic , chemical, immunologic and molecular examination of organs, tissues, and whole bodies (as in

9300-546: The teeth were effective in cutting only when the jaw moved backwards. Although speculated to originate from an earlier assemblage zone, it is well known that Emydops was found from the Late Permian Tropidostoma Assemblage Zone of the Karoo Basin , South Africa . Other herbivorous dicynodonts were found in this assemblage zone such as Pristerodon , Diictodon , Tropidostoma , and Endothiodon . This Anomodont -related article

9400-452: The tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology , etiology , immunology , and parasitology . General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology . Medical imaging

9500-448: The twelve additional species before E. oweni was uncertain until two important revisions of small dicynodonts were released in 1993 by King and Rubidge (1993) and Keyser (1993). Keyser (1993) suggested that the genus be named Emydoses and only include some species previously described and not all of them. Ray (2001) rejects this name and insists that Emydops should be kept due to taxonomic stability. Eventually Angielczyk et al. (2005)

9600-462: The upper jaw of Emydops . They are arranged in a straight line parallel to the mandibular teeth. As seen in cross-section, the crowns of the maxillary postcanine teeth are unserrated and round to slightly widened. In contrast, the mandible of Emydops consists of seven functional teeth, in which the crowns are described as pear-shaped: they have wide, blunt anterior edges and sharp, strongly serrated posterior edges. The holotype specimen of E. oweni

9700-474: The vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia ) and phytopathology , which studies disease in plants. Veterinary pathology covers

9800-473: The ventrolateral region of the cheek is deeply excavated. Convergently evolved from cynodonts , dicynodonts also have a secondary palate which consists of a broad, flat, horizontal plate formed anteriorly by the palatines. Additionally, it extends posteriorly by the palatines, which dip gently downward to the rear. The reflected lamina of the angular bone of Emydops is large and fan-shaped, like other small dicynodonts . However, unlike many dicynodonts ,

9900-419: Was erected as a family of the order Anomodontia and included the genera Dicynodon and Ptychognathus . Other groups of Anomodontia included Gnathodontia , which included Rhynchosaurus (now known to be an archosauromorph ) and Cryptodontia , which included Oudenodon . Cryptodonts were distinguished from dicynodonts from their absence of tusks. Although it lacks tusks, Oudenodon is now classified as

10000-432: Was published, mentioning the possibility of E. arctatus having priority over the other described species of Emydops. All of the species before E. oweni were restudied and their taxonomic status was reevaluated. Frobisch and Reisz (2008) argue that the thirteen species before the discovery of E. oweni all fall under E. arctatus . Below is a cladogram from Kammerer et al. (2013). The data matrix of Kammerer et al. (2013),

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