101-436: See text . Emydidae ( Latin emys (freshwater tortoise) + Ancient Greek εἶδος ( eîdos , “appearance, resemblance”)) is a family of testudines (turtles) that includes close to 50 species in 10 genera . Members of this family are commonly called terrapins , pond turtles , or marsh turtles . Several species of Asian box turtles were formerly classified in the family; however, revised taxonomy has separated them to
202-469: A "keel"), or such a feature may be absent. A prominent bridge often connects the top shell to the bottom shell ( plastron ). Emydids have large bottom shells, and some members of the family have a movable hinge that separates pectoral and abdominal segments ( scutes ). The skull is small. The limbs of these turtles are adapted for swimming, with every member having some level of toe webbing. Most species exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination , as
303-512: A condition of shock in humans, e.g. when someone's mouth suddenly hangs agape in response to something. The exaggerated visual gag of a jaw dropping to the floor was a trademark of American animation director Tex Avery , who would often employ it when the Big Bad Wolf spies a sexually attractive woman. Gobstoppers , a type of hard candy, are known in North America as jawbreakers due to
404-447: A condition which can offset facial symmetry and cause posterior crossbite . The mandibular alveolar process can become resorbed when completely edentulous in the mandibular arch (occasionally noted also in partially edentulous cases). This resorption can occur to such an extent that the mental foramen is virtually on the superior border of the mandible, instead of opening on the anterior surface, changing its relative position. However,
505-467: A deceased person's age. Dental remains of Nazi leader Adolf Hitler , including part of a mandible with teeth, were the solitary physical evidence used to confirm his death in 1945. In the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament Book of Judges , Samson used a donkey's jawbone to kill a thousand Philistines . As early as 1900, the phrase jaw-dropping was used as an adjective to describe
606-451: A different family ( Geoemydidae ). As currently defined, the Emydidae are entirely a Western Hemisphere family, with the exception of two species of pond turtle . The upper shell ( carapace ) of most emydids is the shape of a low arch, although in some species, it is domed. The upper shell may have one or two ridges that run from front to the back of the animal (a projection commonly called
707-406: A doubled mandibular canal via radiograph. The mandible forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. It articulates with the left and right temporal bones at the temporomandibular joints. The condyloid process, the superior (upper) and posterior projection from the ramus, makes the temporomandibular joint with the temporal bone. The coronoid process, superior and anterior projection from
808-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After
909-718: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before
1010-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in
1111-548: A native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until
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#17330853270301212-551: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through
1313-481: A risk to adults of several species. Knowledge of reproductive behavior ranges from some of the most detailed, long-term study of any taxon ( Chrysemys picta in Michigan) to a total lack of information. In many species, dimorphisms include elongated foreclaws or a concave plastron in the male. The longer claws are used in a courtship routine in which the male faces the female and fans her face. The concave plastron allows
1414-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to
1515-695: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross
1616-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be
1717-565: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite
1818-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as
1919-465: A technique using a syringe and cocaine which was performed successfully by 1885. One fifth of facial injuries involve a mandibular fracture. Mandibular fractures are often accompanied by a 'twin fracture' on the opposite side. There is no universally accepted treatment protocol, as there is no consensus on the choice of techniques in a particular anatomical shape of mandibular fracture clinic. A common treatment involves attachment of metal plates to
2020-689: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than
2121-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,
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#17330853270302222-857: Is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to
2323-626: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In
2424-404: Is also subject to fracturing . Surgery allows for the removal of jawbone fragments (or its entirety) as well as regenerative methods. Additionally, the bone is of great forensic significance. In humans , the mandible is the largest and lowest bone in the facial skeleton . It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the vibrating ossicles of the middle ear ). It is connected to
2525-470: Is composed of a cartilagenous structure homologous with Meckel's cartilage. This also remains a significant element of the jaw in some primitive bony fish, such as sturgeons . In reptiles , Meckel's cartilage ossifies into the (multiple) bones of the lower jaw, while mammals of the Cretaceous (145–66 Mya) had both Meckel's cartilage and a mandible. In lobe-finned fishes and the early fossil tetrapods ,
2626-439: Is formed in the human mandible by an ingrowth from the main mass of the bone. At birth, the body of the bone is a mere shell, containing the sockets of the two incisor, the canine, and the two deciduous molar teeth , imperfectly partitioned off from one another. The mandibular canal is of large size and runs near the lower border of the bone; the mental foramen opens beneath the socket of the first deciduous molar tooth. The angle
2727-548: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from
2828-661: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and
2929-468: Is obtuse (175°), and the condyloid portion is nearly in line with the body. The coronoid process is of comparatively large size, and projects above the level of the condyle. After birth, the two segments of the bone become joined at the symphysis, from below upward, in the first year; but a trace of separation may be visible in the beginning of the second year, near the alveolar margin. The body becomes elongated in its whole length, but more especially behind
3030-958: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it
3131-410: Is the skull's largest and strongest bone. In old age, the bone can become greatly reduced in volume where there is a loss of teeth, and consequent resorption of the alveolar process and interalveolar septa. Consequently, the chief part of the bone is below the oblique line. The mandibular canal, with the mental foramen opening from it, is closer to the alveolar border. The ramus is oblique in direction,
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3232-667: Is typical of turtles; however, one species (the wood turtle ) is known to have genetic sex determination. Food habits range from strictly carnivorous to strictly herbivorous . The carnivores feed on annelids , crustaceans , and fish. In several species, a shift from carnivory in juveniles to herbivory in adults occurs. Small mammals, especially raccoons , are responsible for the destruction of many emydid nests. The wide range of sizes in mature animals leads to an assortment of predators. While snapping turtles are responsible for predation in some smaller species (e.g., Glyptemys muhlenbergii ), they cannot eat larger species. Alligators pose
3333-531: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In
3434-566: The Andy Gump deformity after the comic book character , whose design apparently lacks a jaw; proposed reconstruction methods include implanting synthetic material , potentially involving 3D printing . Bone loss (as in osteoporosis ) can be mitigated in the jawbone via bone grafting , which is sometimes performed to support dental implants (replacing teeth individually or in groups ). Mandibular prosthetics date back to ancient Egypt and China , but significant advancements were made in
3535-562: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are
3636-561: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by
3737-559: The Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to
3838-553: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it
3939-604: The Testudinoidea . Shared features include a lack of inframarginal scutes, the shape and muscle attachment of the ilium , and the shape of the eighth cervical vertebra (biconvex). Within the Emydidae, two subfamilies were recognized along biogeographic lines. The Emydidae as understood today contain New World species (except Emys ), while the former Batagurinae, today a separate family Geoemydidae , contain Old World species (except Rhinoclemmys ). Osteological characters, such as
4040-622: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which
4141-478: The alveolar process ). Many muscles attach to the bone, which also hosts nerves (some connecting to the teeth) and blood vessels . Amongst other functions, the jawbone is essential for chewing food. Owing to the Neolithic advent of agriculture ( c. 10,000 BCE ), human jaws evolved to be smaller . Although it is the strongest bone of the facial skeleton , the mandible tends to deform in old age; it
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4242-413: The incisor teeth , it turns back to communicate with the mental foramen, giving off two small canals which run to the cavities containing the incisor teeth. In the posterior two-thirds of the bone the canal is situated nearer the internal surface of the mandible; and in the anterior third, nearer its external surface. It contains the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve, from which branches are distributed to
4343-467: The malleus and the incus of the middle ear. In recent human evolution , both the oral cavity and jaws have shrunk in correspondence with the Neolithic-era shift from hunter-gatherer lifestyles towards agriculture and settlement, dated to c. 10,000 BCE . This has led to orthodontic malocclusions . The mandible forms as a bone (ossifies) from Meckel's cartilage, which forms
4444-480: The mandible (from the Latin mandibula , 'for chewing'), lower jaw , or jawbone is a bone that makes up the lower – and typically more mobile – component of the mouth (the upper jaw being known as the maxilla ). The jawbone is the skull 's only movable, posable bone, sharing joints with the cranium's temporal bones . The mandible hosts the lower teeth (their depth delineated by
4545-430: The mandibular symphysis , the line of junction of the two halves of the mandible. This ridge divides below and encloses a triangular eminence, the mental protuberance (the chin), the base of which is depressed in the center but raised on both sides to form the mental tubercle . Just above this, on both sides, the mentalis muscles attach to a depression called the incisive foramen . Vertically midway on either side of
4646-421: The mouth ), and the platysma (extending down over much of the neck ). From the inside, the mandible appears concave. On either side of the lower symphysis is the mental spine (which can be faint or fused into one), to which the genioglossus (the inferior muscle of the tongue ) attaches; the geniohyoid muscle attaches to the lower mental spine. Above the mental spine, a median foramen and furrow can line
4747-617: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto
4848-599: The English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As
4949-580: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,
5050-503: The Old World taxa are likely to be more properly Geoemydidae. The North American genus Palaeochelys and probably the trans- Atlantic Echmatemys , too, would seem to be Emydidae, but their precise relationships to the living genera are indeterminate. The two subfamilies and genera are arranged as follows: Latin Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] )
5151-461: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from
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#17330853270305252-552: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as
5353-437: The adult, the alveolar and subdental portions of the body are usually of equal depth. The mental foramen opens midway between the upper and lower borders of the bone, and the mandibular canal runs nearly parallel with the mylohyoid line. The ramus is almost vertical in direction, the angle measuring from 110° to 120°, also the adult condyle is higher than the coronoid process and the sigmoid notch becomes deeper. The adult mandible
5454-446: The angle measures about 140°, and the neck of the condyle is more or less bent backward. The posterior of the mandible is notoriously resistant to the full effects of local anesthesia . The IAN provides sensory innervation to much of the mandible and its teeth, making it a target of block anesthesia . Injecting the nerve is challenging due to the amount of surrounding soft tissue . American surgeon William Stewart Halsted developed
5555-412: The anterior ridge, the sublingual gland rests against a smooth triangular area, and below the posterior ridge, the submandibular gland rests in an oval depression. The ramus of the human mandible has four sides, two surfaces, four borders, and two processes. On the outside, the ramus is flat and marked by oblique ridges at its lower part. It gives attachment throughout nearly the whole of its extent to
5656-440: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Mandible In jawed vertebrates ,
5757-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin
5858-425: The body, below the second premolar tooth, is the mental foramen , through which the mental nerve and blood vessels pass. Running backward and upward from each mental tubercle is a faint ridge, the oblique line, which is continuous with the anterior border of the ramus. Attached to this is the masseter muscle ( related to mastication ), the depressor labii inferioris and depressor anguli oris (which support
5959-409: The bone homologous to the mandible of mammals is merely the largest of several bones in the lower jaw. In such animals, it is referred to as the dentary bone or os dentale , and forms the body of the outer surface of the jaw. It is bordered below by a number of splenial bones, while the angle of the jaw is formed by a lower angular bone and a suprangular bone just above it. The inner surface of
6060-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name
6161-431: The cartilaginous bar of the mandibular arch and, dorsally, parts of the middle ear. The two sides of the jawbone are inferiorly fused at the mandibular symphysis (the chin) during the first year of life. The cartilage of the ramus is replaced by fibrous tissue, which persists to form the sphenomandibular ligament . Between the lingula and the canine tooth the cartilage disappears, while the portion of it below and behind
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#17330853270306262-440: The chief part of the body lies above the oblique line. The mandibular canal, after the second dentition, is situated just above the level of the mylohyoid line ; and the mental foramen occupies the position usual to it in the adult. The angle becomes less obtuse, owing to the separation of the jaws by the teeth; about the fourth year it is 140°. The fibrocartilage of the mandibular symphysis fuses together in early childhood. In
6363-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as
6464-525: The construction of the mandible and articulations of the cervical vertebrae distinguish the two families. The enigmatic big-headed turtle ( Platysternon megacephalum ) was for some time considered a specialized, but still very primitive early offshoot of the Emydidae. With the Geoemydidae being split off, though, it is better reinstated as its own family, the Platysternidae, though it seems very close to
6565-461: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for
6666-493: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains
6767-445: The dentary, articular, and angular bones remain, while in living amphibians , the dentary is accompanied only by the prearticular, and, in salamanders , one of the coronoids. The lower jaw of reptiles has only a single coronoid and splenial, but retains all the other primitive bones except the prearticular and the periosteum. In birds, the various bones have fused into a single structure. In mammals, most have disappeared, leaving only
6868-570: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin
6969-520: The emydid-geoemydid group. Presumed emydids are well represented in the fossil record. Gyremys sectabilis and Clemmys backmani are both North American species that date from the Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene , respectively. These are the two oldest fossil species. Many other extinct species traditionally placed in the Emydidae are known from the Eocene of North America, Asia, and Europe, but
7070-535: The fracture to assist in healing. The mandible may be dislocated anteriorly (to the front) and inferiorly (downwards) but very rarely posteriorly (backwards). The articular disk of the temporomandibular joint prevents the mandible from moving posteriorly, making the condylar neck particularly vulnerable to fractures. Further, various jawbone damage can cause temporomandibular joint dysfunction , with symptoms including pain and inflammation . The jawbone can also become deviated in mandibular lateral displacement ,
7171-500: The fracturing risk they impose on teeth. Owing in part to the forensic evidence of Hitler's death being limited to his dental remains (including a jawbone fragment broken and burnt around the alveolar process), some fringe accounts (bolstered by the Soviet Union , which captured Berlin in 1945) allege that Hitler faked his death (ostensibly along with Eva Braun ). In later decades, American real-estate businessman Fred Trump had
7272-429: The incisor teeth becomes ossified and incorporated with this part of the mandible. About the sixth week of fetal life, intramembranous ossification takes place in the membrane covering the outer surface of the ventral end of Meckel's cartilage, and each half of the bone is formed from a single center which appears, near the mental foramen. By the tenth week, the portion of Meckel's cartilage which lies below and behind
7373-414: The incisor teeth is surrounded and invaded by the dermal bone (also known as the membrane bone). Somewhat later, accessory nuclei of cartilage make their appearance, as These accessory nuclei possess no separate ossific centers but are invaded by the surrounding dermal bone and undergo absorption. The inner alveolar border, usually described as arising from a separate ossific center ( splenial center ),
7474-679: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How
7575-459: The jaw is lined by a prearticular bone, while the articular bone forms the articulation with the skull proper. A set of three narrow coronoid bones lie above the prearticular bone. As the name implies, the majority of the teeth are attached to the dentary, but there are commonly also teeth on the coronoid bones, and sometimes on the prearticular. Most vertebrates exhibit a simpler scheme, as bones have either fused or vanished. In teleosts , only
7676-434: The jawbone is known as a mandibulectomy . The removal of a small portion is known as partial mandibulectomy and a larger portion segmental mandibulectomy . This can be performed to remove a tumor, circumvent cancer in nearby areas, and/or in response to infection, osteonecrosis , or injury. The removed portion can be replaced with metal plating or bone from elsewhere in the body. Oral muscles tend to work differently after
7777-566: The joint of the jawbone enables actions such speech and yawning , while playing a more subtle role in activities such as kissing and breathing . The mandible of vertebrates evolved from Meckel's cartilage , left and right segments of cartilage which supported the anterior branchial arch in early fish . Fish jaws surface in species of the large arthrodire genus Dunkleosteus ( fl. 382–358 million years ago ), which crushed prey with their quickly articulating mouths. The lower jaw of cartilaginous fish , such as sharks ,
7878-675: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of
7979-440: The large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as
8080-423: The late 19th century with new techniques for attaching prosthetics to a depreciated jawbone as well as bone grafting. In 2010, the first successful face transplant was conducted on a Spanish farmer after a self-inflicted gun accident ; this included the replacement of the entire mandible. The mandible can provide forensic evidence because its form changes over a person's life, and this can be used to determine
8181-462: The late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and
8282-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became
8383-421: The less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in
8484-430: The male to mount females in species with more domed carapaces (e.g., Terrapene ). Reproduction is on an annual cycle, and multiple clutches may be produced in a single season. Clutch size is quite variable, ranging from as few as two to more than 30 eggs. Emydids are the turtles most commonly sold through the pet trade. The pond slider ( Trachemys scripta ) has expanded its range through the careless release of pets into
8585-453: The mandible and supplies the anterior teeth. The mental nerve exits the mental foramen and supplies sensation to the chin and lower lip. Males generally have squarer, stronger, and larger mandibles than females. The mental protuberance is more pronounced in males but can be visualized and palpated in females. Rarely, a bifid IAN may be present, resulting in a second and more inferiorly placed mandibular foramen. This can be detected by noting
8686-399: The mandible. As a result, there is only articulation between the mandible and temporal bones, as opposed to articulation between articular and quadrate bones . An intermediate stage can be seen in some therapsids , in which both points of articulation are present. Aside from the dentary, only few other bones of the lower jaw remain in mammals; the former articular and quadrate bones survive as
8787-408: The masseter muscle. On the inside at the center there is an oblique mandibular foramen , for the entrance of the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve . The margin of this opening is irregular; it presents in front a prominent ridge, surmounted by a sharp spine, the lingula of the mandible , which gives attachment to the sphenomandibular ligament ; at its lower and back part is a notch from which
8888-411: The mental foramen, to provide space for the three additional teeth developed in this part. The depth of the body increases owing to increased growth of the alveolar part, to afford room for the roots of the teeth, and by thickening of the subdental portion which enables the jaw to withstand the powerful action of the masticatory muscles; but, the alveolar portion is the deeper of the two, and, consequently,
8989-501: The more inferior body of the mandible is not affected and remains thick and rounded. With age and tooth loss, the alveolar process is absorbed so that the mandibular canal becomes nearer the superior border. Sometimes with excessive alveolar process absorption, the mandibular canal disappears entirely and deprives the IAN of its bony protection, although soft tissue continues to guard the nerve. The surgical removal ( resection ) of all or part of
9090-399: The mylohyoid groove runs obliquely downward and forward, and lodges the mylohyoid vessels and nerve. Behind this groove is a rough surface, for the insertion of the medial pterygoid muscle . The mandibular canal runs obliquely downward and forward in the ramus, and then horizontally forward in the body, where it is placed under the alveoli , with small openings for nerves. On arriving at
9191-462: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there
9292-673: The procedure, requiring therapy to relearn operations such as eating and speaking. During recovery, a feeding tube is utilized, and sometimes a tracheotomy is also performed to maintain respiration in case of swollen muscles. In a technique illustrated in the 19th century, the flesh of the face is incised along the inferior of the mandible and peeled upward for the bone's removal. Complications can involve difficulties with free flap transfer and airway management. Additional side effects include pain, infection, numbness, and (rarely, fatal) bleeding. Even successful surgeries can result in deformity , with an extreme version being referred to as
9393-475: The ramus. This provides attachment to the temporal muscle . Teeth sit in the upper part of the body of the mandible. The frontmost part of teeth is more narrow and holds front teeth. The back part holds wider and flatter (albeit grooved) teeth primarily for chewing food. The word mandible derives from the Latin word mandibula 'jawbone' (literally, 'used for chewing'), from mandere 'to chew' and -bula ( instrumental suffix). In addition to mastication,
9494-414: The skull's temporal bones by the temporomandibular joints . In addition to simply opening and closing, the jawbone can articulate side to side as well as forward and back. The mandible consists of: The body of the mandible is curved, and the front part gives structure to the chin . It has two surfaces and two borders. From the outside, the mandible is marked in the midline by a faint ridge, indicating
9595-416: The symphysis. Below the mental spine is an oval depression (the digastric fossa of the mandible ) where the digastric muscle attaches. Extending backward and upward on either side from the lower symphysis is a ridge called the mylohyoid line , where the mylohyoid muscle attaches; a small part of the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle attaches to the posterior ridge, near the alveolar margin . Above
9696-505: The teeth. The mandible has two main holes ( foramina ), found on both its left and right sides: The inferior alveolar nerve (IAN), a branch of the mandibular nerve (itself a major division of the cranium's trigeminal nerve ), enters the mandibular foramen and runs forward in the mandibular canal, supplying sensation to the gums and teeth. Before passing through the mental foramen, the nerve divides into two terminal branches: incisive and mental nerves. The incisive nerve runs forward in
9797-464: The wild. Many Asian species are threatened by over-collection of animals for sale in markets and into the pet trade. The North American species Clemmys muhlenbergii is listed as an Appendix II species by CITES and is considered threatened or endangered in many states. This status is the result of habitat degradation and over-collection. The Emydidae are most closely related to the tortoises ( Testudinidae ) and are included along with that family in
9898-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at
9999-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and
10100-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in
10201-478: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include
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