Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship . The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes in the Sinosphere, with the notable exception of Japan. Temple names should not be confused with era names (年號), regnal names (尊號) or posthumous names (謚號).
114-556: The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing , personal name Xuanye , was the fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty , and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper . His reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history and one of the longest-reigning rulers in history . He is considered one of China's greatest emperors. The third son of
228-417: A Dominican missionary who knew Koxinga, noted that Koxinga held samurai ideals on bravery, used "feigned and hearty laughter" to show anger, and adhered to bushido because of his samurai training and his Japanese upbringing. One Spanish missionary proffered a personal opinion that his bad temper and reported propensity for violence was due to Japanese heritage; however, this same missionary's account of
342-544: A box in the Palace of Heavenly Purity , which would only be opened after his death. Seeing that Yinreng was completely disavowed, Yinsi and some other princes turned to support the 14th prince, Yinti, while the 13th prince supported Yinzhen. They formed the so-called "Eighth Lord Party" ( 八爺黨 ) and "Fourth Lord Party" ( 四爺黨 ). Following the deposition of the crown prince, the Kangxi Emperor implemented groundbreaking changes in
456-616: A career as a scholar-official, which would legitimize the power the Zheng family had acquired, using sometimes questionable means. Zheng Zhilong’s defection to the Qing must have seemed opportunistic and in stark contrast to Koxinga’s continued loyalty to the Ming. But it is difficult to deny that in refusing to submit to the Qing, Koxinga was risking the life of his father, and that the subsequent death of Zheng Zhilong could only be justified by claiming loyalty to
570-576: A confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now Xinjiang , continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took control of Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when
684-576: A declaration of ongoing support to the Ming dynasty. Despite his deliberate self-identification as the noble, loyal vassal of a vanquished master, Koxinga’s actual relationship with the Longwu Emperor lasted only twelve months or so, beginning in September 1645 and ending with the Emperor's death the following year. Although many secondary sources claim that the two men shared a "close bond of affection", there
798-579: A descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he
912-530: A military base for loyalists who wanted to restore the Ming dynasty. Koxinga formulated a plan to give oxen and farming tools and teach farming techniques to the Taiwanese Aboriginals, giving them Ming gowns and caps and gifting tobacco to Aboriginals who were gathering in crowds to meet and welcome him as he visited their villages after he defeated the Dutch. In 1662, Koxinga's forces raided several towns in
1026-540: A monarch should be honored as "祖" ( zǔ ; "progenitor") or "宗" ( zōng ; "ancestor"), a principle was strictly adhered to: "祖" was to be given to accomplished rulers while "宗" was to be assigned to virtuous rulers. However, this principle was effectively abandoned during the Sixteen Kingdoms era with the ubiquitous usage of "祖" by various non- Han regimes. Temple names became widespread from the Tang dynasty onwards. Apart from
1140-430: A motley court and hastily assembled army. Despite one fruitless attempt, Koxinga was unable to do anything to aid the last Ming emperor. Instead, he decided to concentrate on securing his own position on the southeast coast. Koxinga had a series of military successes in 1651 and 1652 that increased the Qing government's anxiety over the threat he posed. Zheng Zhilong wrote a letter to his son from Beijing , presumably at
1254-484: A native son and emphasized his maternal link to Japan in propaganda during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan . The People's Republic of China considers Koxinga a national hero for driving the imperialist Dutch away from Taiwan and establishing ethnic Chinese rule over the island. On mainland China , Koxinga is honoured as the "Conqueror of Taiwan, Great Rebel-Quelling General" a military hero who brought Taiwan back within
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#17330924078181368-579: A new given name, Chenggong ( 成功 ; Chénggōng ; Sêng-kong ; 'success'), and the title of Koxinga ("Lord of the Imperial Surname"). One of his cousins also had it. In 1646, Koxinga first led the Ming armies to resist the Manchu invaders and won the favor of the Longwu Emperor. The Longwu Emperor's reign in Fuzhou was brief, as Zheng Zhilong refused to support his plans for a counteroffensive against
1482-610: A painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send them back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the evangelization of Christianity in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of Sinology in Europe , which would later develop to become
1596-510: A perfect successor. Yinreng was tutored by the mandarin Wang Shan, who remained devoted to him, and spent the later years of his life trying to persuade the Kangxi Emperor to restore Yinreng as the crown prince. Yinreng proved to be unworthy of the succession despite his father showing favoritism towards him. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which
1710-584: A result of a major storm, the Manchus were defeated, and they lost most of their fleet in the battle. Koxinga had sent one of his naval commanders to capture Zhoushan island prior to Jidu's attack, and now that the Manchus were temporarily without an effective naval force in the Fujian area, Koxinga was free to send a huge army to Zhoushan, which he intended to use as a base to capture Nanjing. Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having
1824-695: Is a temple dedicated to Koxinga and his mother in Tainan City , Taiwan. The National Cheng Kung University in Tainan, one of the most prestigious universities in Taiwan, is named after him. Koxinga's army also brought the Qinxi fraternal brotherhood into Taiwan, of which some of his army were members of the organization. In the present day, the Qinxi currently exists in Taiwan. The Hongmen are associated with them. Tokugawa Japan imported books from Qing China including works on
1938-457: Is an absence of any reliable contemporary evidence on Koxinga’s relationship with the Longwu Emperor. In contrast, Koxinga's father Zheng Zhilong left his Japanese wife not long after the birth of his son; Koxinga was a boy of seven when he finally joined his father on the Fujianese coast. It seems that Zheng Zhilong recognized his son’s talent and encouraged him in his studies and the pursuit of
2052-417: Is either "祖" or "宗": Zheng Chenggong Zheng Chenggong, Prince of Yanping ( Chinese : 鄭成功 ; pinyin : Zhèng Chénggōng ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Tīⁿ Sêng-kong ; 27 August 1624 – 23 June 1662), better known internationally as Koxinga (Chinese: 國姓爺 ; pinyin: Guóxìngyé ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Kok-sèng-iâ ), was a Southern Ming general who resisted the Qing conquest of China in
2166-599: The Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign " idolatry ". The Dominican position won the support of Pope Clement XI , who in 1705 sent Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon as his representative to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites. Through de Tournon, the Pope insisted on sending his own representative to Beijing to oversee Jesuit missionaries in China. Kangxi refused, wanting to keep missionary activities in China under his final oversight, managed by one of
2280-481: The Duke of Zhou 's offspring. The contents of the national treasury during the Kangxi Emperor's reign were: The reasons for the declining trend in the later years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign were a huge expenditure on military campaigns and an increase in corruption. To fix the problem, the Kangxi Emperor gave Prince Yong (the future Yongzheng Emperor ) advice on how to make the economy more efficient. During his reign,
2394-705: The Eastern Han dynasty . In other cases, numerous individuals were honored with more than one temple name by intentional changes or being accorded different titles by different individuals. For instance, the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty was originally honored as Taizong by the Hongxi Emperor , but his temple name was later amended to Chengzu by the Jiajing Emperor . There were also instances of individuals ruling as
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#17330924078182508-642: The Eight Banners as a member of the Han Plain Red Banner . His soldiers—including the rattan-shield troops ( 藤牌營 , tengpaiying )—were similarly entered into the Eight Banners, notably serving against Russian Cossacks at Albazin . A score of Ming princes had joined the Zheng dynasty on Taiwan, including Prince Zhu Shugui of Ningjing and Prince Honghuan ( 朱弘桓 ), the son of Zhu Yihai . The Qing sent most of
2622-531: The Grand Matsu Temple the next year and, honoring the goddess Mazu for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" ( 天后 Tianhou ) from her previous status as a "heavenly consort" ( 天妃 Tianfei ). Belief in Mazu remains so widespread on Taiwan that her annual celebrations can gather hundreds of thousands of people; she is sometimes even syncretized with Guanyin and
2736-724: The Guozijian (Imperial University), where he met the scholar Qian Qianyi and became his student. Following the fall of Ming Dynasty in 1644, in 1645, the Prince of Tang was installed on the throne of the Southern Ming as the Longwu Emperor with support from Zheng Zhilong and his family. The Longwu Emperor established his court in Fuzhou , which was controlled by the Zhengs. In the later part of
2850-549: The Han Chinese sphere of influence through expanded economic, trade and cultural exchanges. In China, Koxinga is honoured without the religious overtones found in Taiwan. The Republic of China , which withdrew to Taiwan after losing the Chinese Civil War , regards Koxinga as a patriot who also retreated to Taiwan and used it as a base to launch counterattacks against the Qing dynasty of mainland China (drawing parallels to
2964-583: The Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin , using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of Kangxi emperor. The main army of the Qing Empire, the Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under Hong Taiji and in the early reign of the Shunzhi Emperor ; however, it was larger than in
3078-461: The Kingdom of Tungning , which he established in modern-day Tainan . In Taiwan, Koxinga is remembered and revered as a divine national hero with hundreds of temples, schools, tertiary educations, and other public centers named in his honor. Koxinga is accredited with replacing Dutch colonial rule with a more modern political system. Furthermore, Koxinga transformed Taiwan into an agrarian society through
3192-603: The Philippines . Koxinga's chief advisor was an Italian friar named Vittorio Riccio , whom he sent to Manila to demand tribute from the colonial government of the Spanish East Indies , threatening to expel the Spaniards if his demands were not met. The Spanish refused to pay the tribute and reinforced the garrisons around Manila, but the planned attack never took place due to Koxinga's sudden death in that year after expelling
3306-606: The Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiaokangzhang in Jingren Palace, the Forbidden City , Beijing , the Kangxi Emperor was originally given the Chinese name Xuanye ( Chinese : 玄燁 ; pinyin : Xuanye ; Manchu transliteration : hiowan yei ). He was enthroned at the age of seven (or eight by East Asian age reckoning ), on 7 February 1661. However, his era name "Kangxi", only started to be used on 18 February 1662,
3420-647: The Shunzhi Emperor , Kangxi was enthroned at the age of seven while actual power was held for six more years by the Four Regents nominated by his father. After assuming personal rule, Kangxi's attempt to revoke the fiefdoms of feudal princes sparked the Revolt of the Three Feudatories , which he suppressed. He also forced the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan and Mongols in the north and northwest to submit to Qing rule, and launched an expedition that incorporated Tibet into
3534-602: The Virgin Mary . The end of the rebel stronghold and capture of the Ming princes allowed the Kangxi Emperor to relax the Sea Ban and permit resettlement of the Fujian and Guangdong coasts. The financial and other incentives to new settlers particularly drew the Hakka , who would have continuous low-level conflict with the returning Punti people for the next few centuries. In the 1650s,
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3648-598: The Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors' reigns. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong, Shi Lang , Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao. The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which
3762-448: The 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he memorialized the emperor to convert it into a Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as
3876-517: The 17th century, fighting them on China's southeastern coast. In 1661, Koxinga defeated the Dutch outposts on Taiwan and established Zheng rule of the island on behalf of Ming Dynasty from 1661 to 1683. Zheng Chenggong was born in 1624 in Hirado , Hizen Province , Japan, to Zheng Zhilong , a Chinese merchant, and a Japanese woman known only by her surname "Tagawa," probably Tagawa Matsu . He
3990-656: The Chinese did not require it for themselves; but requiring it now, it was only fair that Dutch strangers, who came from far regions, should give way to the masters of the island." The Taiwanese Aboriginal tribes, who were previously allied with the Dutch against the Chinese during the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in 1652, now turned against the Dutch during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia by defecting to Koxinga's Chinese forces. The Aboriginals (Formosans) of Sincan defected to Koxinga after he offered them amnesty and proceeded to work for
4104-567: The Chinese, beheading Dutch people. The frontier Aboriginals in the mountains and plains also surrendered and defected to the Chinese on 17 May 1661, celebrating their freedom from compulsory education under Dutch rule by hunting down Dutch people and beheading them and by destroying Dutch Protestant school textbooks. On 1 February 1662, the Dutch Governor of Formosa, Frederick Coyett , surrendered Fort Zeelandia to Koxinga. According to Frederick Coyett's own self-justifying account written after
4218-486: The Chinese. Koxinga was reputed to be mentally unstable: to have a vicious temper and a tendency towards ordering executions. While this might be explained by the trauma of his family being killed by the Qing army and his mother's reported suicide (in order to prevent capture by the Qing), it was also speculated that he suffered from syphilis, a suspicion held by a Dutch doctor, Christian Beyer, who treated him. Vittorio Riccio,
4332-478: The Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami. The Kangxi Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi ( 五經博士 ; Wǔjīng Bóshì ) to the descendants of Shao Yong , Zhu Xi , Zhuansun Shi , Ran family ( Ran Qiu , Ran Geng , Ran Yong ), Bu Shang , Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius) , and
4446-631: The Dutch from Taiwan. Koxinga's threat to invade the islands and expel the Spanish was an important factor in the Spanish failure to conquer the Muslim Moro people in Mindanao . The threat of Chinese invasion forced the Spanish to withdraw their forces to Manila. They immediately evacuated their fort on Zamboanga in Mindanao following Koxinga's threats. They left some troops in Jolo and by Lake Lanao to engage
4560-621: The Grand Canal leading to possible starvation in Beijing caused such fear that the Manchus considered returning to Manchuria and abandoning China according to a 1671 account by a French missionary. The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that
4674-484: The Istituto Orientale and the present day Naples Eastern University . The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument. Thomas Pereira taught him how to play the harpsichord, and he employed Karel Slavíček as court musician. Slavíček was playing Spinet ; later the emperor would play on it himself. China's famed blue and white porcelain probably reached its zenith during
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4788-458: The Jesuits who had been living in Beijing for years. On 19 March 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the papal bull Ex illa die , which officially condemned Chinese rites. In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were "causing trouble". A prolonged struggle between various princes emerged during the Kangxi Emperor's reign over who should inherit the throne –
4902-705: The Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars. The Kangxi Emperor incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of Qinghai (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader Galdan . Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as Turkic Muslims in Qinghai were plotting with Galdan , who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and
5016-483: The Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a dictionary of Chinese characters , which became known as the Kangxi Dictionary . This was seen as an attempt by the emperor to gain support from the Han Chinese scholar-bureaucrats , as many of them initially refused to serve him and remained loyal to the Ming dynasty . However, by persuading the scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve
5130-484: The Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of Kangding and other border towns in western Sichuan that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative tea-horse trade . The Tibetan desi (regent) Sangye Gyatso concealed the death of the 5th Dalai Lama in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of
5244-415: The Kangxi Emperor to abdicate when his father returned to Beijing . However, the emperor received news of the planned coup d'etat , and was so angry that he deposed Yinreng and placed him under house arrest again. After the incident, the emperor announced that he would not appoint any of his sons as crown prince for the remainder of his reign. He stated that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside
5358-485: The Kangxi Emperor to suspect that Yinreng might have been framed, so he restored Yinreng as crown prince in 1709, with the support of the 4th and 13th princes, and on the excuse that Yinreng had previously acted under the influence of mental illness. In 1712, during the Kangxi Emperor's last inspection tour of the south, Yinreng, who was put in charge of state affairs during his father's absence, tried to vie for power again with his supporters. He allowed an attempt at forcing
5472-491: The Kangxi Emperor's reign. In the early decades of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, Jesuits played a large role in the imperial court. With their knowledge of astronomy , they ran the imperial observatory. Jean-François Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira served as translators for the negotiations of the Treaty of Nerchinsk . The Kangxi Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions, the many languages they could interpret, and
5586-410: The Ming loyalists on Taiwan —organized under the Zheng dynasty as the Kingdom of Tungning —were defeated off Penghu by 300-odd ships under the Qing admiral Shi Lang . Koxinga 's grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered Tungning a few days later and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang moved to Beijing, joined the Qing nobility as the "Duke Haicheng" ( 海澄公 ), and was inducted into
5700-504: The Ming. It has even been suggested that Koxinga’s fury at the incestuous relationship between his son, Zheng Jing, and a younger son’s wet nurse was due to the fact that strict Confucian morality had played such a crucial role in justifying his lack of filial behaviour. The one possible exception to this may have been his relationship with his mother, which has generally been described as being extremely affectionate, particularly in Chinese and Japanese sources. Their time together, however,
5814-555: The Moro in protracted conflict. They permanently abandoned their colony in the Maluku Islands (Moluccas) and withdraw their soldiers from there to Manila. Tonio Andrade judged that Koxinga would most likely have been able to defeat the Spanish if the threatened invasion had taken place. Koxinga died of unspecified illness in June 1662, only a few months after defeating the Dutch in Taiwan, at
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#17330924078185928-441: The Nine Lords' War ( 九子奪嫡 ). In 1674 the Kangxi Emperor's first spouse, Empress Xiaochengren , died while giving birth to his second surviving son Yinreng , who at the age of two was named crown prince – a Han Chinese custom, to ensure stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although the Kangxi Emperor left the education of several of his sons to others, he personally oversaw the upbringing of Yinreng, grooming him to be
6042-459: The Qing Empire engaged the Tsardom of Russia in a series of border conflicts along the Amur River region, which concluded with the Qing gaining control of the area after the Siege of Albazin . The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. A series of battles and negotiations culminated in the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, by which a border was agreed between Russia and China. The Inner Mongolian Chahar leader Ligdan Khan ,
6156-435: The Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the Battle of Ulan Butung in Inner Mongolia , in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor. In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War . The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died in
6270-415: The Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the Dzungars over the influence of Tibetan Buddhism . In 1688, the Dzungar chief, Galdan Boshugtu Khan , attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the Gobi Desert and sought help from
6384-410: The Qing dynasty. She was caught by Manchu forces in Anping and committed suicide after refusal to submit to the enemy, according to traditional accounts. By 1650, Koxinga was strong enough to establish himself as the head of the Zheng family . He pledged allegiance to the Yongli Emperor of Southern Ming, who created him Prince of Yanping (延平王). The Yongli Emperor was fleeing from the Manchus with
6498-446: The Qing imperial court, the Kangxi Emperor led them to gradually taking on greater responsibilities until they were assuming the duties of state officials. In 1700, on the Kangxi Emperor's order, the compilation of a vast encyclopedia known as the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China (completed during the reign of his successor Yongzheng ), and a compilation of Tang poetry , the Complete Tang Poems . The Kangxi Emperor also
6612-415: The Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing. Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on 24 August. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements — though cavalry attacks by
6726-489: The Qing were considering abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Koxinga which he himself was preparing to do. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing
6840-406: The Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the Khoshut ruler Lha-bzang Khan in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the Dalai Lama , the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lha-bzang Khan Regent of Tibet ( 翊法恭順汗 ; Yìfǎ Gōngshùn Hán ; 'Buddhism Respecting', 'Deferential Khan'). The Dzungar Khanate ,
6954-553: The Qing. Zheng Zhilong agreed and ignored the objections of his family, surrendering himself to the Qing forces in Fuzhou on 21 November 1646. Koxinga and his uncles were left as the successors to the leadership of Zheng Zhilong's military forces. Koxinga operated outside Xiamen and recruited many to join his cause in a few months. He used the superiority of his naval forces to launch amphibious raids on Manchu-occupied territory in Fujian and he managed to take Tong'an in Quanzhou prefecture in early 1647. However, Koxinga's forces lacked
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#17330924078187068-403: The Republic of China's hypothetical reclamation of the mainland, comparing the ROC to the Ming dynasty and the PRC to the Qing dynasty). In Taiwan, Koxinga is honored as the island’s most respected saint for expelling the Dutch and seen as the original ancestor of a free Taiwan, and is known as Kaishan Shengwang, or "the Sage King who Opened up Taiwan" and as "The Yanping Prince", referring to
7182-416: The Xinhai revolution broke out and the Qing dynasty fell, after which they moved back to Anhai and Nan'an in southern Fujian. They still live there to this day. His descendants through one of his sons Zheng Kuan live in Taiwan. One of Koxinga's descendants on mainland China, Zheng Xiaoxuan 鄭曉嵐, fought against the Japanese invaders in the Second Sino-Japanese War . His son Zheng Chouyu [ zh ]
7296-401: The Zheng family. The Qing built a shrine to commemorate Koxinga to counteract the Japanese and French in Taiwan in the 19th century. Zheng Juzhong's books Zheng Chenggong zhuan was imported to Japan and reprinted in 1771. Koxinga has received renewed attention since rumors began circulating that the People’s Liberation Army Navy were planning to name their newly acquired aircraft carrier ,
7410-426: The ability to defend the newly occupied territory. Following the fall of Tong'an to Zheng, the Manchus launched a counterattack in the spring of 1647, during which they stormed the Zheng family's hometown of Anping . Koxinga's mother, Lady Tagawa, had come from Japan in 1645 to join her family in Fujian (Koxinga's younger brother, Tagawa Shichizaemon, remained in Japan). She did not follow her husband to surrender to
7524-407: The age of 37. Contemporary accounts named heat stroke and cold as causes and modern historians suspect malaria. Qing history claimed that he died in a sudden fit of madness when his officers refused to carry out his orders to execute his son Zheng Jing , who had had an affair with his wet nurse and conceived a child with her. Zheng Jing succeeded his father as the Prince of Yanping . According to
7638-548: The central government system inherited from the Ming with important modifications. Temple name Modern academia usually refers to the following rulers by their temple names: Chinese monarchs from the Tang to the Yuan dynasties, Korean rulers of the Goryeo (until AD 1274) and Joseon dynasties, and Vietnamese rulers of the Lý , Trần , and Later Lê dynasties (with the Hồ and Later Trần dynasties as exceptions). Numerous individuals who did not rule as monarch during their lifetime were posthumously elevated to
7752-422: The city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and slipped back to the ships which had brought them. In 1661, Koxinga led his troops on a landing at Lakjemuyse to attack the Dutch colonists in Dutch Formosa . Koxinga said to the Dutch "Hitherto this island had always belonged to China, and the Dutch had doubtless been permitted to live there, seeing that
7866-409: The eighth prince, Yinsi, and requested his father to order Yinreng's execution. The Kangxi Emperor was enraged and stripped Yinzhi of his titles. The emperor then commanded his subjects to cease debating the succession issue, but despite this and attempts to reduce rumours and speculation as to who the new crown prince might be, the imperial court's daily activities were disrupted. Yinzhi's actions caused
7980-523: The emperor decided that he could no longer tolerate Yinreng's behavior, which he partially mentioned in the imperial edict as "never obeying ancestors' virtues, never obliged to my order, only doing inhumanity and devilry, only showing maliciousness and lust", and decided to strip Yinreng of his position as crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor placed his oldest surviving son, Yinzhi , in charge of overseeing Yinreng's house arrest . Yinzhi, an unfavored Shu son , knowing he had no chance of being selected, recommended
8094-511: The empire. Domestically, he initially welcomed the Jesuits and the propagation of Catholicism in China, but tolerance came to an end as a result of the Chinese Rites controversy . Later in his reign, Kangxi became embroiled in a prolonged succession dispute. He died in 1722 at the age of 68 and was succeeded by his fourth son, who assumed the throne as the Yongzheng Emperor . The Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated
8208-637: The empire. He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the Yellow River ; repair of the Grand Canal ; the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688. Kangxi's relatives from the Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to
8322-567: The ex-Soviet Varyag , the "Shi Lang". Admiral Shi Lang famously defeated Koxinga’s descendants in the 1683 Battle of Penghu , thus bringing Taiwan under Qing rule . However, the Chinese government denied all allegations that the vessel would be dedicated to the decorated Qing dynasty admiral. Koxinga is regarded as a hero in the People's Republic of China , Taiwan, and Japan , but historical narratives regarding Koxinga frequently differ in explaining his motives and affiliation. Japan treats him as
8436-444: The feudal princes to give up their lands and retire to Manchuria, sparking a rebellion that lasted eight years. For years afterwards Kangxi ruminated on his mistakes and blamed himself in part for the loss of life during the revolt. Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen . The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress
8550-718: The final ruler of a dynasty, monarchs who died prematurely, or monarchs who were deposed, most Chinese monarchs were given temple names by their descendants. The practice of honoring rulers with temple names had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes within the East Asian cultural sphere|Sinosphere, including those based on the Korean Peninsula and in Vietnam. Japan, while having adopted both posthumous names and era names from China, did not assign temple names to its monarchs. Most temple names consist of two Chinese characters, unlike
8664-409: The first day of the following lunar year. Sinologist Herbert Giles , drawing on contemporary sources, described the Kangxi Emperor as "fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises, and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with smallpox ." Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, Grand Empress Dowager Zhaosheng (in
8778-596: The following year. In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibe were resettled in Guisui , modern Inner Mongolia , and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in Shenyang , Liaoning . The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out. In 1701,
8892-593: The grand temple. Temple names trace their origins to the Shang dynasty of China. In earlier times, temple names were exclusively assigned to competent rulers after their death. The temple name system established during the Shang period utilized only four adjectives: Chinese monarchs of the Zhou dynasty were given posthumous names but not temple names. During the Qin dynasty , the practices both of assigning temple names and posthumous names
9006-403: The historian Roberts Antony, "the death of Zheng Chenggong began the downturn of family fortunes." Zheng Chenggong’s short but eventful career was characterized by family tension and conflicting loyalties. The title of Koxinga ("Lord of the Imperial Surname") was one that Zheng himself used during his lifetime to emphasize his status as an adopted son of the deposed imperial house, so it was also
9120-464: The inadequately defended mountain passes and entered Fujian. Zheng Zhilong retreated to his coastal fortress and the Longwu Emperor faced the Qing armies alone. Longwu's forces were destroyed; he was captured and was executed in October 1646. The Qing forces sent envoys to meet Zheng Zhilong secretly and offered to appoint him as the governor of both Fujian and Guangdong provinces if he would surrender to
9234-404: The initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle in Nanjing ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against the Dutch at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay , throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of
9348-406: The innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturing and artillery , the latter of which enabled the Qing Empire to conquer the Kingdom of Tungning . The Kangxi Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke the Chinese language well, and wore the silk robes of the elite. In 1692, when Pereira requested tolerance for Christianity , the Kangxi Emperor
9462-507: The installation of the five-year-old Shunzhi Emperor on their throne. By 1661, when the Shunzhi Emperor died and was succeeded by the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing conquest of China proper was almost complete. Leading Manchus were already using Chinese institutions and mastering Confucian ideology, while maintaining Manchu culture among themselves. The Kangxi Emperor completed the conquest, suppressed all significant military threats and revived
9576-406: The introduction of new agricultural methods such as the proliferation of iron farming tools and new farming methods with cattle. For these reasons, Koxinga is often associated with "hints of [a] consciousness of Taiwanese independence ," although Koxinga himself wanted Taiwan unified with the rest of China. Great care was taken to symbolize support for the Ming legitimacy, an example being the use of
9690-458: The more elaborate posthumous names. In extremely rare cases, temple names could consist of three characters. The first character is an adjective, chosen to reflect the circumstances of the monarch's reign. The vocabulary may overlap with that of the posthumous names' adjectives; however, for one sovereign, the temple name's adjective character usually does not repeat as one of the many adjective characters in his posthumous name. The last character
9804-420: The name of Shunzhi Emperor ) had appointed the powerful men Sonin , Suksaha , Ebilun , and Oboi as regents . Sonin died after his granddaughter became Empress Xiaochengren , leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death and seized absolute power as sole regent. The Kangxi Emperor and the rest of the imperial court acquiesced to this arrangement. In
9918-664: The new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor . The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in Zunhua , Hebei . A legend concerning the Kangxi Emperor's will states that he chose Yinti as his heir, but Yinzhen forged the will in his own favour. It has, however, long been refuted by serious historians. Yinzhen, later the Yongzheng Emperor , has attracted many rumours, and some novel-like private books claim he did not die of illness but
10032-413: The ninth and tenth princes, Yintang and Yin'e, pledged their support to Yinti. In the evening of 20 December 1722, just before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eighth, ninth, tenth, sixteenth and seventeenth princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died, Longkodo announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as
10146-607: The number of executions attributed to Koxinga was greatly exaggerated. Koxinga suffered from "depressive insanity" and mental illness according to Dr. Li Yengyue. It is debated whether he was clean-shaven or wore a beard. Koxinga's legacy is treated similarly on each side of the Taiwan Strait . Koxinga is worshiped as a god in coastal China , especially Fujian , by overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia and in Taiwan . There
10260-604: The peace treaty, Koxinga was styled "Lord Teibingh Tsiante Teysiancon Koxin" ( simplified Chinese : 大明招讨大将军国姓 ; traditional Chinese : 大明招討大將軍國姓 ; pinyin : Dàmíng Zhāotǎo Dàjiāngjūn Guóxìng ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Tāibêng Chiauthó Tāichiang-kun Kok-sìⁿ ; lit. ' Great Ming Commander in Chief of the Punitive Expedition (Lord) Imperial-Surname'). This effectively ended 38 years of Dutch rule on Taiwan. Koxinga then devoted himself to transforming Taiwan into
10374-644: The period known as the High Qing era (or the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong"), spanning the reigns of the Kangxi Emperor, his son Yongzheng, and his grandson Qianlong . His court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary , the Complete Tang Poems poetry anthology, and the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China . Born on 4 May 1654 to
10488-412: The political landscape. The 13th prince, Yinxiang , was placed under house arrest as well for cooperating with Yinreng . The eighth prince Yinsi was stripped of all his titles and only had them restored years later. The 14th prince Yinti , whom many considered to be the most likely candidate to succeed the Kangxi Emperor, was sent on a military campaign during the political conflict. Yinsi, along with
10602-457: The position of monarch by their descendants and honored with temple names. For example, Cao Cao was posthumously honored as an emperor and given the temple name Taizu by Cao Pi of the Cao Wei dynasty . Meanwhile, several individuals who were initially assigned temple names had their titles revoked, as was the case for Emperor Huan , whose temple name, Weizong , was abolished by Emperor Xian of
10716-413: The rapidly expanding forces of the newly established Qing dynasty by the Manchus. Zheng Zhilong ordered the defending general of Xianxia Pass ( 仙霞關 ), Shi Fu (a.k.a. Shi Tianfu, a relative of Shi Lang ), to retreat to Fuzhou even when Qing armies approached Fujian. For this reason, the Qing army faced little resistance when it conquered the north of the pass. In September 1646, Qing armies broke through
10830-461: The rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681. In 1683, the naval forces of
10944-569: The request of the Shunzhi Emperor and the Qing government, urging his son to negotiate with the Manchurians. The long series of negotiations between Koxinga and the Qing dynasty lasted until November 1654. The negotiations ultimately failed. The Qing government then appointed Prince Jidu (son of Jirgalang ) to lead an attack on Koxinga's territory after this failure. On 9 May 1656, Jidu's armies attacked Kinmen (Quemoy), an island near Xiamen that Koxinga had been using to train his troops. Partly as
11058-508: The siege, Koxinga's life was saved at the end of the siege by a certain Hans Jurgen Radis of Stockaert, a Dutch defector who strongly advised him against visiting the ramparts of the fort after he had taken it, which Radis knew would be blown up by the retreating Dutch forces. This claim of a Dutch defector only appears in Coyett's account and Chinese records make no mention of any defector. In
11172-543: The sovereign of a particular realm but being accorded a temple name by another realm, as was the case for Möngke of the Mongol Empire , who was later honored as Xianzong by Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty . The "temple" in "temple name" (廟號) refers to the grand temples (太廟) built by each dynasty for the purpose of ancestor worship. The temple name of each monarch was recorded on their respective ancestral tablet placed within
11286-458: The spring of 1662, the regents ordered a Great Clearance in southern China that evacuated the entire population from the seacoast to counter a resistance movement started by Ming loyalists under the leadership of Taiwan-based Ming general Zheng Chenggong , also titled Koxinga . In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with the help of his grandmother Grand Empress Dowager Zhaosheng , who had raised him. and began taking personal control of
11400-510: The term guan instead of bu to name departments, since the latter is reserved for central government, whereas Taiwan was to be a regional office of the rightful Ming rule of China . The play The Battles of Coxinga was written by Chikamatsu Monzaemon in Japan in the 18th century, first performed in Kyoto . A 2001 film titled The Sino-Dutch War 1661 starred Vincent Zhao as Koxinga. The film
11514-422: The training of the army was deemed less important as compared to during the previous emperors' reigns. After the Qing takeover of China in 1644, large parts of the south and west were given as fiefs to three Ming generals who aided the Qing; in 1673 the three feudatories were controlled by Wu Sangui , Geng Jingzhong , and Shang Zhixin . Going against the advice of most of his advisors, Kangxi attempted to force
11628-460: The year, Prince Lu proclaimed himself regent ( 監國 ) in Shaoxing and established his own court there. Although Prince Lu and Longwu's regimes stemmed from the same dynasty, each pursued different goals. Owing to the natural defenses of Fujian and the military resources of the Zheng family , the emperor was able to remain safe for some time. The Longwu Emperor granted Zheng Zhilong's son, Zheng Sen,
11742-498: Was abandoned. The Han dynasty reintroduced both titles, although temple names were assigned sporadically and remained more exclusive than posthumous names. It was also during the Han era that other adjectives aside from the four listed above began appearing in temple names. Numerous Han emperors had their temple names removed by Emperor Xian of Han, Liu Xie, in AD 190. Initially, in deciding whether
11856-549: Was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy. The Outer Khalkha Mongols had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to
11970-554: Was apparently very short – despite frequent entreaties from Zheng Zhilong for her to join him in China, Koxinga’s mother was only reunited with her son some time in 1645, and a year later she was killed when the Qing took Xiamen. A portrait of Zheng was in the hands of Yuchun who was his descendant in the eight generation. Koxinga's descendants live in both mainland China and Taiwan and descendants of his brother Shichizaemon live in Japan. His descendants through his grandson Zheng Keshuang served as Bannermen in Beijing until 1911 when
12084-466: Was assassinated by a swordswoman, Lü Siniang ( 呂四娘 ), the granddaughter of Lü Liuliang , though this is never treated seriously by scholars. The Kangxi Emperor was a great consolidator of the Qing dynasty . The transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing was a cataclysm whose central event was the fall of the capital Beijing to the peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng , then to the Manchus in 1644, and
12198-527: Was born in Shandong in mainland China and called himself a "child of the resistance" against Japan and he became a refugee during the war, moving from place to place across China to avoid the Japanese. He moved to Taiwan in 1949 and focuses his poetry work on building stronger ties between Taiwan and mainland China. Zheng Chouyu identified as Chinese. He felt alienated after he was forced to move to Taiwan in 1949 which
12312-509: Was deemed incest and a capital offence. Yinreng also purchased young children from Jiangsu to satisfy his pedophiliac pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu , gradually formed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子黨), that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods. Over the years, the Kangxi Emperor kept constant watch over Yinreng and became aware of his son's many flaws, while their relationship gradually deteriorated. In 1707,
12426-592: Was interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. This was done through Jesuit missionaries , such as Ferdinand Verbiest , whom the Kangxi Emperor frequently summoned for meetings, or Karel Slavíček , who made the first precise map of Beijing on the emperor's order. From 1711 to 1723, Matteo Ripa , an Italian priest sent to China by the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples , worked as
12540-467: Was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle. By the Qianlong Emperor's reign, military commanders had become lax and
12654-456: Was placed under house arrest in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories , with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title
12768-620: Was previously under Japanese rule and felt strange and foreign to him. Chouyu is Koxinga's 11th generation descendant and his original name is Zheng Wenji. "Koxinga: Chronicles of the Tei Family" was written by R. A. B. Posonby-Fane. In 1661, during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia, Koxinga executed Dutch missionary Antonius Hambroek and took his teenage daughter as a concubine. Other Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their "wives". In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of
12882-442: Was raised there until the age of seven with the Japanese name Fukumatsu (福松) and then moved to Fujian province of Ming dynasty China . In 1638, Zheng became a Xiucai ( 秀才 , lit. "successful candidate") in the imperial examination and became one of the twelve Linshansheng ( 廩膳生 ) of Nan'an . In 1641, Koxinga married the niece of Dong Yangxian, an official who was a Jinshi from Hui'an . In 1644, Koxinga studied at
12996-447: Was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration, which recognized Catholicism , barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by the Chinese people . However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship , with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and
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