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140-602: Franco–German relations were long dominated by the idea of French–German enmity , which asserted that there was a natural rivalry between the two nations. Germany started World War II by invading Poland in 1939. France then declared war on Germany, which prompted the German invasion and occupation of France from 1940 to 1944. Afterwards, France participated in the Allied occupation of Germany from 1945 to 1949. The post-war West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer made rapprochement between

280-470: A renunciation of citizenship , while others do not. Some countries permit a general dual citizenship while others permit dual citizenship but only of a limited number of countries. A country that allows dual citizenship may still not recognize the other citizenship of its nationals within its own territory (e.g., in relation to entry into the country, national service , duty to vote , etc.). Similarly, it may not permit consular access by another country for

420-654: A "dormant citizenship" means that a person has the citizenships of two countries, but as long as while living permanently in one country, their status and citizen's rights in the other country are "inactive". They will be "reactivated" when they move back to live permanently in the other country. This means, in spite of dual citizenship, only one citizenship can be exercised at a time. The "dormant citizenship" exists, for example, in Spain: Spanish citizens who have naturalized in an Iberoamerican country and have kept their Spanish citizenship are dual citizens, but have lost many of

560-653: A "new Élysée Treaty" in January 2018 on the occasion of its 55th anniversary. The so-called Aachen Treaty was signed on 22 January 2019. Franco-German relations France–Germany relations or the Franco-German relations form a part of the wider politics of the European Union . The two countries have a long – and often contentious – relationship stretching back to the Middle Ages . After World War II ,

700-410: A Franco-German federation was a proposed merger between France and Germany after the end of World War II. The idea was promoted by French politician Robert Schuman in his declaration on May 9, 1950, which is now celebrated as Europe Day. The aim of the proposal was to create a lasting peace between the two countries and to promote economic cooperation. The Franco-German federation proposal envisioned

840-418: A bundle of rights, dual citizenship (a) enables dual citizens by granting special privileges, (b) affects their expectations about privileges in the decision-making process, and (c) eases the transaction process and reduces costs and risks, for example in the case of investing and conducting business. In addition, a dual legal status can have positive effects on diasporic identification and commitment to causes in

980-513: A citizen only of the country. In other words, the country "does not recognize" that the person has any other citizenship for the purposes of the country's laws. In particular, citizens of a country may not be permitted to use another country's passport or travel documents to enter or leave the country, or be entitled to consulate assistance from the other country. Also, the dual national may be subject to compulsory military service in countries where they are considered to be nationals. The concept of

1120-471: A combined total of only 5,000 members. When war broke out in 1914, recovery of the two lost provinces became France's primary war aim. After Bismarck's removal in 1890, French efforts to isolate Germany became successful; with the formation of the Triple Entente , Germany began to feel encircled. Foreign minister Delcassé, especially, went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain. Key markers were

1260-400: A common government, currency, and military. It also sought to establish a European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which would integrate the coal and steel industries of France and Germany. The ECSC was created in 1952 and was the first step toward the creation of the European Union . While the idea of a Franco-German federation never fully materialized, the proposal laid the foundation for

1400-615: A conflict between authorities carried out on the backs of their subjects. Napoleon put an end to the millennium-old Holy Roman Empire in 1806, forming his own Confederation of the Rhine , and reshaped the political map of the German states, which were still divided. The wars, often fought in Germany and with Germans on both sides, as in the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, also marked the beginning of what

1540-514: A foreign power after taking office would forfeit his/her seat. This was regarded by many as a technicality, however; and Duynhoven, with his large electoral majority, was almost certain to re-enter Parliament in the event of a by-election . As such, the Labour Government retrospectively amended the Act, thus enabling Duynhoven to retain his seat. The amendment, nicknamed "Harry's Law", was passed by

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1680-591: A friendship treaty in 1801 and a formal alliance in August 1805, pushed for by the Bavarian Minister Maximilian von Montgelas . With French support, Bavaria was elevated to the status of a Kingdom in 1806 . Bavaria supplied 30,000 troops for the invasion of Russia in 1812 , of which very few returned. With the decline of the First French Empire, Bavaria opted to switch sides on 8 October 1813 and left

1820-542: A full assessment of dual nationality beyond the first generation is not possible with present data). Concern over the effect of multiple citizenship on national cohesiveness is generally more acute in the United States. The reason for this is twofold: The degree of angst over the effects of dual citizenship seemingly corresponds to a country's model for managing immigration and ethnic diversity: People with multiple citizenship may be viewed as having dual loyalty , having

1960-698: A gradual cultural alienation during the High and Late Middle Ages, social and cultural interrelations remained present through the preeminence of Latin language and Frankish clergy and nobility. The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , a member of the Austrian House of Habsburg , inherited the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté in 1506. When he also inherited Spain in 1516, France was surrounded by Habsburg territories and felt under pressure. The resulting tension between

2100-510: A majority of 61 votes to 56. The revised Act allows exceptions to Section 55 on the grounds of an MP's country/place of birth, descent, or renewing a foreign passport issued before the MP took office. Both the former Estonian president Toomas Hendrik Ilves and the former Lithuanian president Valdas Adamkus had been naturalized US citizens prior to assuming their offices. Both have renounced their US citizenships: Ilves in 1993 and Adamkus in 1998. This

2240-771: A person is automatically born a citizen of another country without officially being recognized. In many cases, the person may even be unaware that he holds multiple citizenship. For example, because of the nationality law in Italy, a person born in Canada to parents of Italian ancestry may be born with both Canadian and Italian citizenship at birth. Canadian citizenship is automatically acquired by birth within Canada. However, that same person may also acquire Italian citizenship at birth if at least one parent's lineage traces back to an Italian citizen. The person, their parent, grandparent, great-grandparent, and great-great-grandparent may have all transmitted

2380-420: A person may concurrently hold another citizenship. A country may withdraw its own citizenship if a person acquires a citizenship of another country, for example: Once a country bestows citizenship, it may or may not consider a voluntary renunciation of that citizenship to be valid. In the case of naturalization, some countries require applicants for naturalization to renounce their former citizenship. For example,

2520-489: A person who is also its national. Some countries prohibit dual citizenship holders from serving in their armed forces or on police forces or holding certain public offices . Up until the late 19th century, nations often decided whom they claimed as their citizens or subjects and did not recognize any other nationalities they held. Many states did not recognize the right of their citizens to renounce their citizenship without permission because of policies that originated with

2660-631: A rerun of 1914–18. There was little enthusiasm and much dread in France at the prospect of actual warfare after the Phoney War . When the Germans launched their blitzkrieg invasion of France in 1940, the French Army crumbled within weeks, and with Britain retreating, an atmosphere of humiliation and defeat swept France. A new government under Marshal Philippe Pétain surrendered, and German forces occupied most of

2800-636: A security clearance to an applicant who was a dual national of the U.S. and Ireland, despite the fact that it has with good relations with the US. In Israel , certain military units, including most recently the Israeli Navy 's submarine fleet, as well as posts requiring high security clearances, require candidates to renounce any other citizenship before joining, though the number of units making such demands has declined. In many combat units, candidates are required to declare but not renounce any foreign citizenship. On

2940-494: A series of treaties. British Foreign Minister Austen Chamberlain enthusiastically agreed. France realized that its occupation of the Ruhr had caused more financial and diplomatic damage than it was worth and went along with the plan. They convened a conference of foreign ministers in the Swiss resort of Locarno and worked out the treaties. The first was the most critical: a mutual guarantee of

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3080-510: A shared vision of history. The Franco-German University enables students to attain international double degrees from both countries. Additionally, a so-called Élysée-Fond was established to promote Franco-German culture projects in third countries. Also, double citizenships for French and German citizens in the opposite country are now easier to obtain, or in some cases finally possible. Chancellor Angela Merkel and President Emmanuel Macron , along with lawmakers from both countries, called for

3220-648: A so-called Holy League against the "hereditary enemy" of Christian Europe ("Erbfeind christlichen Namens"). Far from joining or supporting the common effort of the Holy Roman Empire and Poland-Lithuania , France, under Louis XIV , invaded the Spanish Netherlands in September 1683, a few days before the Battle of Vienna . While Austria was occupied with the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), France initiated

3360-493: A treaty in Europe requiring signatories to limit dual citizenship lapsed in the 1990s, and countries with high emigration rates began permitting it to maintain links with their respective diasporas. Each country sets its own criteria for citizenship and the rights of citizenship, which change from time to time, often becoming more restrictive. For example, until 1982, a person born in the UK

3500-489: Is a citizen since birth. Therefore, the second citizenship (in this case, the Italian citizenship) is "dormant" (or "hidden") because the person does not even know he is a citizen and/or does not have official recognition from the country's government. That person would therefore have to gather all necessary documents and present them to the Italian government so that their "dormant" or "hidden" citizenship will be recognized. Once it

3640-526: Is a person's legal status in which a person is at the same time recognized by more than one country under its nationality and citizenship law as a national or citizen of that country. There is no international convention that determines the nationality or citizenship status of a person, which is consequently determined exclusively under national laws, that often conflict with each other, thus allowing for multiple citizenship situations to arise. A person holding multiple citizenship is, generally, entitled to

3780-427: Is based on the Élysée Treaty , which was signed by Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer on 22 January 1963. The treaty contained a number of agreements for joint cooperation in foreign policy, economic and military integration and exchange of student education. The treaty was signed under difficult political situations at that time and criticized both by opposition parties in France and West Germany, as well as from

3920-415: Is cited as evidence of the need to maintain a strong national identity and culture . They assert that the fact that a second citizenship can be obtained without giving anything up (such as the loss of public benefits, welfare, healthcare, retirement funds, and job opportunities in the country of origin in exchange for citizenship in a new country) both trivializes what it means to be a citizen and nullifies

4060-674: Is impossible under the laws of the other country or impossible in practice because it requires an extremely difficult revocation process), then that person will not be disqualified from sitting in Parliament. In the 2017 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis , the High Court disqualified Australia's Deputy Prime Minister and four senators because they held dual citizenship, despite being unaware of their citizenship status when elected. In New Zealand , controversy arose in 2003 when Labour MP Harry Duynhoven applied to renew his citizenship of

4200-413: Is no longer beneficial. Proponents argue that dual citizenship can actually encourage political activity providing an avenue for immigrants who are unwilling to forsake their country of origin either out of loyalty or based on a feeling of separation from the mainstream society because of language, culture, religion, or ethnicity. A 2007 academic study concluded that dual citizens had a negative effect on

4340-422: Is often observed that dual citizenship may strengthen ties between migrants and their countries of origin and increase their propensity to remit funds to their communities of origin. Qualitative research on the effect of dual citizenship on the remittances, diaspora investments, return migration, naturalization and political behavior finds several ways in which multiple citizenship can affect these categories. As

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4480-656: Is part of the United Kingdom. People in Northern Ireland are therefore "entitled to Irish, British, or both" citizenships. Between 1999 and 24 June 2004 , anyone born on the island of Ireland was entitled to Irish citizenship automatically. Since 24 June 2004 Irish citizenship has been granted to anyone born on the island of Ireland who has one, or both, parents who; are Irish citizens or British citizens , were entitled to live in Ireland without any residency restrictions, or

4620-428: Is recognized, he will be able to do all of the things that any citizen could do, such as apply for a passport. Some countries are more open to multiple citizenship than others, as it may help citizens travel and conduct business overseas. Countries that have taken active steps towards permitting multiple citizenship in recent years include Switzerland (since January 1, 1992) and Australia (since April 4, 2002). It

4760-675: The British Nationality Act 1948 removed restrictions on dual citizenship in the UK, the 1967 Afroyim v. Rusk ruling by the US Supreme Court prohibited the US government from stripping citizenship from Americans who had dual citizenship without their consent, and the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1976 , removed restrictions on dual citizenship in Canada . The number of states allowing multiple citizenships further increased after

4900-608: The European Union and the close cooperation between France and Germany that has been a driving force behind European integration. Today, France and Germany are considered to be the engine of European integration and have played a key role in the creation of the European Monetary Union, the Schengen Agreement , and the European Stability Mechanism . Earlier in 1948, there were significant key leaders in

5040-635: The Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Great Britain, and finally the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907 which became the Triple Entente . This formal alliance with Russia, and informal alignment with Britain, against Germany and Austria-Hungary eventually led Russia and Britain to enter World War I as France's Allies. The Allied victory saw France regain Alsace-Lorraine and briefly resume its old position as

5180-580: The Liberal Party of Canada and the previous leader of the official opposition , holds dual citizenship with France as a result of his mother's nationality; Dion nonetheless indicated a willingness to renounce French citizenship if a significant number of Canadians viewed it negatively. Thomas Mulcair , former Leader of the New Democratic Party and former leader of the Official Opposition in

5320-720: The Red Army from the Nazis and ensured the political success of Communist parties controlled by the Kremlin. The French, under De Gaulle, hoped to be a balancing act in 1945–46. French fears of a resurgent Germany made it reluctant to support the plan to merge the British and American zones of occupation. However, growing anger at the Soviets behaviour in Poland, and the need for American economic assistance, led

5460-607: The Rhine river and the old focus of French ambition, to be detached from Germany as an independent country. In the end they settled for heavy German reparation payments , the military occupation of the Rhineland (1918–1930) and the demilitarization of it and an area stretching 50 kilometers east of the Rhine. On the remote Eastern end of the German Empire, the Memel territory was separated from

5600-514: The United Kingdom and the United States . Opposition from the United Kingdom and the United States was answered by an added preamble which postulated a close cooperation with those (including NATO ) and a targeted German reunification. The treaty achieved a lot in initiating European integration and a stronger Franco-West German co-position in transatlantic relations. The initial concept for

5740-468: The United States Department of Defense (DoD) Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA) office of Industrial Security Clearance Review (ISCR), which decides cases involving security clearances for Contractor personnel doing classified work for all DoD components. In one such case, an administrative judge ruled that it is not clearly consistent with US national interest to grant a request for

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5880-640: The War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697). The attempt to conquer large parts of southern Germany ultimately failed when German-Roman troops were withdrawn from the Ottoman border and moved to the region. However, following a scorched earth policy that caused a large public outcry at the time, French troops devastated large parts of the Palatinate, burning down and levelling numerous cities and towns in southern Germany. In

6020-475: The '"special relationship" embodied in a cooperation called Franco-German Friendship . In the context of the European Union , the cooperation between the two countries is immense and intimate. Even though France has, at times, been eurosceptical in outlook, especially under President Charles de Gaulle , Franco-German agreements and cooperations have always been key to furthering the ideals of European integration . In recent times, France and Germany are among

6160-433: The 1880s, Franco-German relations were relatively good." After 1880, the rapid growth in the population and economy of Germany left France increasingly far behind. In the 1890s, relationships remained good, as Germany supported France during its difficulties with Great Britain over African colonies. Any lingering harmony collapsed in 1905, when Germany took an aggressively hostile position to French claims to Morocco. There

6300-640: The 18th century, the rise of Prussia as a new German power caused the Diplomatic Revolution and an alliance between France, the Habsburgs and Russia, manifested in 1756 in the Treaty of Versailles and the Seven Years' War against Prussia and Great Britain. Although a German national state was on the horizon, the loyalties of the German population were primarily with smaller states. The French war against Prussia

6440-722: The Americans' service. They're betraying the spirit of the Franco-German Treaty. And they're betraying Europe." Later, in 1965, the General told his closest aides behind closed doors: "The Germans had been my greatest hope; they are my greatest disappointment." Among the direct consequences of the Treaty are the creation of the Franco-German Youth Office (l'Office Franco-allemande pour la jeunesse/Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk),

6580-465: The Army and to intense public demand in Germany for acquisition of the border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, thereby turning France into a permanent, deeply committed enemy. Theodore Zeldin says: "Revenge and the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine became a principal object of French policy for the next forty years. That Germany was France's enemy became the basic fact of international relations." Bismarck's solution

6720-506: The Austrian-led Catholic Imperial forces. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 gave France part of Alsace . The 1679 Treaties of Nijmegen consolidated this result by bringing several towns under French control. In 1681, Louis XIV marched into the city of Strasbourg on 30 September, and proclaimed its annexation. Meanwhile, the expanding Muslim Ottoman Empire became a serious threat to Austria. The Papal States initiated

6860-512: The Canadian House of Commons also holds dual citizenship with France. In Egypt , dual citizens cannot be elected to Parliament. The Constitution of Australia , in Section 44 (i), explicitly forbids people who hold allegiance to foreign powers from sitting in the parliament of Australia . This restriction on people with dual or multiple citizenship being members of parliament does not apply to

7000-558: The Canadian forces. The French embassy released a statement that this law would not be enforced because the Governor General is essentially a ceremonial figurehead. Nevertheless, Jean renounced her French citizenship two days before taking up office to end the controversy about it. However, former Canadian Prime Minister John Turner was born in the United Kingdom and still retained his dual citizenship. Stéphane Dion , former head of

7140-577: The Conflict of Nationality Laws proposed laws that would have reduced both but, in the end, were ratified by only 20 nations. One significant development that emerged was the Master Nationality Rule , which provided that "a State may not afford diplomatic protection to one of its nationals against a state whose nationality such person also possesses." Although fully eliminating dual nationality proved to be legally impossible during this time, it

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7280-456: The Franco-German cooperation however dates back a lot further than the Élysée Treaty and is based on the overcoming the centuries of Franco-German hostilities within Europe. It was compared to a re-establishment of Charlemagne 's European empire as it existed before division by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD . Double citizenship Multiple citizenship (or multiple nationality )

7420-461: The French alliance in favour of an Austrian one through the Treaty of Ried . During the first half of the 19th century, many Germans looked forward to a unification of the German states; one issue was whether Catholic Austria would be a part. German nationalists believed that a united Germany would replace France as the world's dominant land power. This argument was aided by demographic changes: since

7560-426: The French armies at the Battle of Sedan . Finally, in the Treaty of Frankfurt , reached after a lengthy siege of Paris , France was forced to cede the mostly Germanic-speaking Alsace-Lorraine territory (consisting of most of Alsace and a quarter of Lorraine ), and pay an indemnity of five billion francs. Thereafter, Germany was the leading land power. Although initially against it, Bismarck eventually gave into

7700-488: The French civil service who favoured an agreement with the Germans as well as an integrated Europe that would include Germany. The French European Department was working on a coal and steel agreement for the Ruhr-Lorraine-Luxembourg area, with equal rights for all. One French civil servant recommended 'laying down the bases of a Franco-German economic and political association that would slowly become integrated into

7840-633: The French to merge their zone into what became West Germany. In 1947, the American Secretary of State, George Marshall , announced the Marshall Plan to help economic recovery, economic integration, and business-oriented modernization in Europe. Large sums went to France and Germany, which helped restore trade and financial relations. The Marshall Plan recipients set up the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) in 1948. The idea of

7980-667: The German government, propagating French-German reconciliation, French renewal and European solidarity. The war left Europe in a weak position and divided between capitalism in the West, and communism in the East. For the first time in the history of Europe, both Americans and Soviets had a strategic foothold on the continent. Defeated Germany was under the control of the U.S., USSR, United Kingdom and France, until 1949. Soviet troops remained in those countries in Eastern Europe that had been liberated by

8120-403: The German minister of economics Ludwig Erhard created a significant evolution in the German economy and a durable, well established trading relationship between the Federal Republic and its European neighbours as well. Later on when the Treaty of Rome came into action in 1958, it took the responsibility to strengthen and sustain the new political and economic relationships that had developed between

8260-410: The German nation and its former victims in Western Europe. The treaty beside it included side deals; it created a customs union and established the rules needed to make the competition mechanism work properly. As a sequence of this, booming European economies, fired by West Germany , led to the formation of the new customs union known as the European Economic Community (EEC). But it did not go well as

8400-402: The Italian citizenship to the next child in the line without even knowing it. Therefore, even if the person in this case may have been four generations removed from the last Italian-born (and therefore recognized) citizen, the great-great-grandparent, he would still be born with Italian citizenship. Even though the person may not even be aware of the citizenship, it does not change the fact that he

8540-458: The Justice Department not to employ a non-"citizen of the United States" did not bar it from employing dual citizens. In Germany , politicians can have dual citizenship. David McAllister , who holds British and German citizenship, was minister president of the State of Lower-Saxony from July 1, 2010, to February 19, 2013. He was the first German minister president to hold dual citizenship. A small controversy arose in 2005 when Michaëlle Jean

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8680-417: The Middle Ages, France had the largest population in Western Europe, but in the 19th century its population stagnated (a trend which continued until the second half of the 20th century), and the population of the German states overtook it and continued to rapidly increase. The eventual unification of Germany was triggered by the Franco-German War in 1870 and subsequent French defeat. German forces defeated

8820-405: The Netherlands. Duynhoven, the New Zealand-born son of a Dutch-born father, had possessed dual citizenship from birth but had temporarily lost his Dutch citizenship as a result of a change in Dutch law in 1995 regarding non-residents. While New Zealand's Electoral Act allowed candidates with dual citizenship to be elected as MPs, Section 55 of the Act stated that an MP who applied for citizenship of

8960-456: The New European Order and to keep the unity of France. Therefore, much of WW2 French propaganda was pro-European, exactly as German propaganda was. Therefore, a group called "Group Collaboration" had been established during the war in France, and led a myriad of conferences promoting Pro-Europeanism. The very first time the expression "European Community" was used was at its first sessions, as well as many conferences and guests lectures sponsored by

9100-406: The Rhine and colonized parts of Germania, but had since become militarily inferior to the Germani. He also writes that Germani had once crossed the Rhine into northeast Gaul and driven away its Gallic inhabitants, and that the Belgae claimed to be largely descended from these Germanic invaders. Years later, Both Gaul and Germaina were both invaded by the Roman Empire . Years after the Fall of

9240-422: The Rhineland adjoining France were put under the rule of Prussia . Bavaria as the third-largest state in Germany after 1815 enjoyed much warmer relations with France than the larger Prussia or Austria . From 1670 onwards, the two countries were allies for almost a century, primarily to counter Habsburg ambitions to incorporate Bavaria into Austria. This alliance was renewed after the rise of Napoleon to power with

9380-413: The UK government even after they renounce British allegiance to the satisfaction of US authorities. Irish nationality law applies to the whole of the island of Ireland , which at present is divided politically between the sovereign Republic of Ireland , which has jurisdiction over the majority of Ireland, and Northern Ireland , which consists of 6 of the 9 counties of the Irish province of Ulster, and

9520-430: The US Chief Justice John Rutledge ruled "a man may, at the same time, enjoy the rights of citizenship under two governments", but the US requires applicants for naturalization to swear to an oath renouncing all prior "allegiance and fidelity" to any other nation or sovereignty as part of the naturalization ceremony. However, some countries do not recognise one of its citizens renouncing their citizenship. Effectively,

9660-416: The US and European governments. In 1874, President Ulysses S. Grant , in his annual message to Congress , decried the phenomenon of people "claiming the benefit of citizenship, while living in a foreign country, contributing in no manner to the performance of the duties of a citizen of the United States, and without intention at any time to return and undertake those duties, to use the claims to citizenship of

9800-528: The US and several other European countries over their tendency to conscript naturalized US citizens visiting their former homelands. In addition, many 19th century European immigrants to the United States eventually returned to their homelands after naturalizing as US citizens and some cases then attempted to use their US citizenship for diplomatic protection. The US State Department had to decide which US citizens it should protect and which were subjected to local law, resulting in tensions with immigrant communities in

9940-430: The United Kingdom to the EEC; the achievement of a free trade accord in the framework of the GATT; and for the West's military integration in NATO under US leadership. This effectively emptied the Treaty of any sense (in Gaullist understanding) and put end to General de Gaulle's hopes of building the EEC into a counterweight to the US and the USSR. "The Germans are behaving like pigs. They are putting themselves completely at

10080-459: The United States are still subject to tax on their worldwide income, although U.S. tax law provides measures to reduce or eliminate double taxation issues for some, namely exemption of earned income (up to an inflation-adjusted threshold which, as of 2023, is $ 120,000 ), exemption of basic foreign housing, as well as foreign tax credits . It has been reported that some US citizens have relinquished US citizenship in order to avoid possible taxes,

10220-547: The United States simply as a shield from the performance of the obligations of a citizen elsewhere." The US government negotiated agreements with various European states known as the Bancroft Treaties from 1868 to 1937, under which the signatories pledged to treat the voluntary naturalization of a former citizen or national with another sovereign nation as a renunciation of their citizenship. The theory of perpetual allegiance largely fell out of favor with governments during

10360-488: The United States, Eritrea, and the Philippines Under Spanish tax law, Spanish nationals and companies still have tax obligations with Spain if they move to a country that is in the list of tax havens and cannot justify a strong reason, besides tax evasion. They are required to be residents of that country for a minimum of 5 years; after which they are free from any tax obligations. U.S. persons living outside

10500-568: The United States, United Kingdom, NATO , or the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). However, after US President John F. Kennedy expressed his displeasure about this to the West German ambassador to the United States, the Bundestag ratified the treaty with a preamble which called on France and West Germany to pursue tight cooperation with the United States; the eventual admission of

10640-476: The United States, dual citizenship is common among politicians or government employees. For example, Arnold Schwarzenegger retained his Austrian citizenship during his service as a Governor of California while US Senator Ted Cruz renounced his Canadian citizenship birthright on 14 May 2014. In 1999, the US Attorney General 's office issued an official opinion that a statutory provision that required

10780-502: The United States. As a matter of fact, if a security clearance applicant's dual citizenship is "based solely on parents' citizenship or birth in a foreign country", that can be a mitigating condition. However, taking advantage of the entitlements of a non-US citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying one from security clearance and "is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or

10920-729: The Western Roman Empire , The death of Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious and the following partition of the Frankish Empire in the 843 Treaty of Verdun marked the end of a single state. While the population in both the Western and Eastern kingdoms had relative homogeneous language groups ( Gallo-Romanic in West Francia, and Low German and High German in East Francia), Middle Francia

11060-466: The assimilation and political connectedness of first-generation Latino immigrants to the United States, finding dual citizens: The study also noted that although dual nationality is likely to disconnect immigrants from the American political system and impede assimilation, the initial signs suggest that these effects seem to be limited almost exclusively to the first generation (although it is mentioned that

11200-617: The concept of dual nationality as a "self-evident absurdity." Roosevelt's article was spurred by the case of P.A. Lelong, a US citizen born in New Orleans to French immigrant parents. He had planned to travel to France on business but had been warned that he might be conscripted to fight in World War I , and when he contacted the State Department for assurances that "my constitutional privileges as an American citizen follow me wherever I go", he

11340-444: The consequential, transformational, and psychological change that occurs in an individual when they go through the naturalization process. In effect, this approach argues that the self-centered taking of an additional citizenship contradicts what it means to be a citizen, in that it becomes a convenient and painless means of attaining improved economic opportunity without any real consequences and can just as easily be discarded when it

11480-513: The country to Normandy, suspected the village of Oradour-sur-Glane of harboring resistance members, arms and explosives. In retaliation, they destroyed the town in the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre , killing 642 of its inhabitants. There was also a free French army fighting with the Allies, numbering almost five hundred thousand men by June 1944, one million by December and 1.3 million by the end of

11620-690: The country. A minority of the French forces escaped abroad and continued the fight under General Charles de Gaulle and Free France . On the other hand, the French Resistance conducted sabotage operations inside German-occupied France. To support the invasion of Normandy of 1944, various groups increased their sabotage and guerrilla attacks; organizations such as the Maquis derailed trains, blew up ammunition depots, and ambushed Germans, for instance at Tulle . The 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich , which came under constant attack and sabotage on their way across

11760-589: The creation of Franco-German high schools , and the twinning between numerous French and German towns, schools and regions. Another outcome of the Treaty was the Franco-German military brigade , which was established in 1987 and is still intact. In January 2003, the Assemblée Nationale and the Deutsche Bundestag met in Versailles to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Treaty. The choice of location

11900-405: The expense and complexity of compliance, or because they have been deemed unacceptable to financial institutions in the wake of FATCA . A person with multiple citizenship may have a tax liability to his country of residence and also to one or more of his countries of citizenship; or worse, if unaware that one of his citizenships created a tax liability, that country may consider the person to be

12040-455: The feudal theory of perpetual allegiance to the sovereign. This meant that people could hold multiple citizenships, with none of their nations recognizing any other of their citizenships. Until the early modern era, when levels of migration were insignificant, this was not a serious issue. However, when non-trivial levels of migration began, this state of affairs sometimes led to international incidents, with countries of origin refusing to recognize

12180-418: The framework of the evolving Western organization'. Deighton strongly illustrated that the French leaders sought the cooperation with the Germans as key factor on the path of integrated Europe. On a more practical level the increased level of cooperation between West Germany and France were driven by de Gaulle’s desire to build a power-bloc independently of the US, while Adenauer sought a fast integration into

12320-402: The frontiers of Belgium, France, and Germany, which was guaranteed by Britain and Italy. The second and third treaties called for arbitration between Germany and Belgium, and Germany and France regarding future disputes. The fourth and fifth were similar arbitration treaties between Germany and Poland, and Germany and Czechoslovakia. Poland especially, and Czechoslovakia as well, felt threatened by

12460-541: The historic rivals one of his priorities. The treaty called for regular consultations between France and West Germany on all important questions concerning defense, education and youth issues. It also requires regular summits between high-level officials, which implies that the Heads of State and Government have to meet at least twice a year and the Ministers of Foreign Affairs every three months, to ensure close collaboration between

12600-502: The homeland, as well as to a higher naturalization rate of immigrants in their countries of residence. A study published in 2007 in The Journal of Politics explored questions of whether allowing dual citizenship impedes cultural assimilation or social integration , increases disconnection from the political process, and degrades national or civic identity/cohesiveness. The rise in tension between mainstream and migrant communities

12740-476: The identity of the foreign country" as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that "any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government". This guideline has been followed in administrative rulings by

12880-532: The late 19th century. With the consensus of the time being that dual citizenship would only lead to diplomatic problems, more governments began prohibiting it and revoking the nationality of citizens holding another nationality. By the mid-20th century, dual nationality was largely prohibited worldwide, although there were exceptions. For example, a series of United States Supreme Court rulings permitted Americans born with citizenship in another country to keep it without losing their US citizenship. Most nations revoked

13020-487: The laws of another nation by requiring such individuals to choose one of their nationalities upon reaching the age of maturity. The US State Department, invoking provisions of the Bancroft treaties, systematically stripped US citizenship from naturalized US citizens who returned to live in their native countries for extended periods of time. However, in the absence of multilateral cooperation regarding dual nationality, enforcement

13160-533: The leading land power on the European continent. France was the leading proponent of harsh peace terms against Germany at the Paris Peace Conference . Since the war had been fought on French soil, it had destroyed much of French infrastructure and industry, and France had suffered the highest number of casualties proportionate to population. Much French opinion wanted the Rhineland, the section of Germany west of

13300-443: The loss of Alsace and Lorraine. Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat came in high demand, such as those by Alphonse de Neuville . The Alsace-Lorraine issue remained a minor theme after 1880, and Republicans and Socialists systematically downplayed the issue and the monarchists (who emphasized the issue) faded away. Revanchism was not a major cause of war in 1914 because it faded after 1880. J.F.V. Keiger says: "By

13440-542: The main Locarno agreement, and the treaties were attempts to reassure them. The success of the Locarno agreements led to the admission of Germany to the League of Nations in September 1926, with a seat on its council as a permanent member. The result was the euphoric "Spirit of Locarno" across Europe—a sense that it was possible to achieve peace and a permanent system guaranteeing that peace. The Great Depression on 1929-33 soured

13580-486: The mood in France, and plunged Germany into economic hardship and violent internal unrest. From 1933 under Adolf Hitler , Germany began to pursue an aggressive policy in Europe. Meanwhile, France in the 1930s was politically divided, and above all dreaded another war, which the French feared would again be fought on their soil for the third time, and again destroy a large percentage of their young men. France's stagnant population meant that it would find it difficult to withhold

13720-461: The most enthusiastic proponents of the further integration of the EU. They are sometimes described as the "twin engine" or "core countries" pushing for moves. A tram straddling the Franco-German border, across the river Rhine from Strasbourg to Kehl , was inaugurated on 28 April 2017 symbolizing the strength of relations between the two countries. Both France and Germany track their early history from

13860-488: The nationality of their citizens who naturalized in another nation, as well as if they displayed significant evidence of political or social loyalty to another nation such as military service, holding political office, or even participating in elections. In some cases, naturalization was conditional on renunciation of previous citizenship. Many nations attempted to resolve the issue of dual citizenship emanating from people born in their territory but who inherited citizenship under

14000-455: The new nationalities of natives who had migrated, and, when possible, conscripting natives who had naturalized as citizens of another country into military service. The most notable example was the War of 1812 , triggered by British impressment into naval service of US sailors who were alleged to be British subjects. In the aftermath of the 1867 Fenian Rising , Irish-born naturalized American citizens who had gone to Ireland to participate in

14140-550: The only way for a country to avoid multiple citizenship is to deny its citizenship to people in cases when they would have another citizenship. This may take the following forms: Countries may bestow citizenship automatically (i.e., "by operation of law"), which may result in multiple citizenships, in the following situations: Some countries have special rules relating to multiple citizenships, such as: Many countries allow foreigners or former citizens to live and work indefinitely there. However, for voting, being voted and working for

14280-723: The organization of Europe, because only the members of the coal and steel community 'ECSC' ("the six": Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany) joined the EEC. Seven of the remaining nations belonging to the Organization of European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) which administered the Marshall Plan, did not join the EEC, but instead formed an alternative body, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). It

14420-468: The other hand, Israel may view some dual citizens as desirable candidates for its security services because of their ability to legitimately enter neighbouring states which are closed to Israeli passport holders. The related case of Ben Zygier has caused debate about dual citizenship in Australia. This perception of dual loyalty can apply even when the job in question does not require security clearance. In

14560-450: The person in question may still possess both citizenships, notwithstanding the technical fact that they may have explicitly renounced one of the country's citizenships before officials of the other. For example, the UK recognizes a renunciation of citizenship only if it is done with competent UK authorities. Consequently, British citizens naturalized in the US remain British citizens in the eyes of

14700-445: The potential to act contrary to a government's interests, and this may lead to difficulties in acquiring government employment where security clearance may be required. In the United States, dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Contrary to common misconceptions, dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in

14840-465: The public sector or the national security in a country, citizenship of the country concerned is almost always required. A statement that a country "does not recognize" multiple citizenship is confusing and ambiguous. Often, it is simply a restatement of the Master Nationality Rule, whereby a country treats a person who is a citizen of both that country and another in the same way as one who is

14980-483: The reconciliation of France and Germany, the axis of political European integration, furthermore, the plan announced the proposal of a European army. This led to the signing of the treaty of the European Defence Community (EDC) in 1952. The main purpose of establishing such army was to create a "European security identity", through closer Franco-West German military and security cooperation. In like manner,

15120-703: The rest of East Prussia and occupied by France, before being annexed by Lithuania . In response to German failure in 1923 to pay reparations as required under the Treaty of Versailles , France occupied the industrial Ruhr area of Germany, the center of German coal and steel production, until 1925. Also, the French-dominated International Olympic Committee banned Germany from the Olympic Games of 1920 and 1924, illustrating French desire to isolate Germany. In late 1924 German foreign minister Gustav Stresemann made his highest priority

15260-476: The restoration of German prestige and privileges as a leading European nation. French withdrawal from the occupied Ruhr was scheduled for January 1925, but Stresemann sensed that France was very nervous about its security and might cancel the withdrawal . He realized that France deeply desired a British guarantee of its postwar borders, but that London was reluctant. Stresemann came up with a plan whereby all sides would get what they wanted through guarantees set out in

15400-544: The rights of Spanish citizens resident in Spain—and hence the EU—until they move back to Spain. Some countries offer former citizens or citizens of former colonies of the country a simplified (re-)naturalization process. Depending on the laws of the two countries in question, dual citizenship may or may not be allowed. For details, see " right of return ". Another example of "dormant citizenship" (or "hidden citizenship") occurs when

15540-722: The rights of citizenship in each country whose citizenship they are holding (such as right to a passport, right to enter the country, right to work , right to own property, right to vote , etc.) but may also be subject to obligations of citizenship (such as a potential obligation for national service, becoming subject to taxation on worldwide income, etc.). Some countries do not permit dual citizenship or only do in certain cases (e.g., inheriting multiple nationalities at birth). This may be by requiring an applicant for naturalization to renounce all existing citizenship, by withdrawing its citizenship from someone who voluntarily acquires another citizenship, or by other devices. Some countries permit

15680-635: The sheer force of numbers of a German invasion; it was estimated Germany could put two men of fighting age in the field for every French soldier. Thus in the 1930s the French, with their British allies, pursued a policy of appeasement of Germany, failing to respond to the remilitarization of the Rhineland , although this put the German army on a larger stretch of the French border. Finally, however, Hitler pushed France and Great Britain too far, and they jointly declared war when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. But, France remained exhausted and in no mood for

15820-471: The signing of the friendship treaty, a new controversy between France and West Germany occurred. President de Gaulle intended the treaty to make West Germany distance itself and eventually separate itself from its American protector. He saw West Germany (and the other member states of the European Economic Community) as vassalized by Washington. The treaty was notable in that it made no mention of

15960-473: The state parliaments, and the regulations vary by state. A court case (see Sue v Hill ) determined that the UK is a foreign power for purposes of this section of the constitution, despite Australia holding a common nationality with it at the time that the Constitution was written, and that Senator-elect Heather Hill had not been duly elected to the national parliament because at the time of her election she

16100-672: The territories of Gaul to the time of Charlemagne , whose vast empire included most of the area of both modern-day France and Germany, as well as the Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg , Switzerland , Austria , Slovenia , and northern Italy . Both nations fought together in the Gallic War against Julius Caesar and the Roman Republic between 58 and 50 BC. According to Caesar, the Gallic Volcae Tectosages had once crossed

16240-560: The two countries. Frederick the Great was soon respected by all of his enemies, and Napoleon himself used him as a model for battle. The civil population still regarded war as a conflict between their authorities, and did not so much distinguish between troops according to the side on which they fought but rather according to how they treated the local population. The personal contacts and mutual respect between French and Prussian officers did not stop entirely while they were fighting each other, and

16380-467: The two nations have largely reconciled. Since the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1958, they have been among the founders and leading members of the European Communities and later the European Union . General relations between the two countries since 1871, according to Ulrich Krotz, have had three grand periods: "hereditary enmity" (down to 1945), "reconciliation" (1945–1963) and since 1963

16520-579: The two powers caused a number of conflicts such as the War of the Spanish Succession , until the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 made them allies against Prussia . The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), devastating large parts of the Holy Roman Empire , fell into this period. Although the war was mostly a conflict between Protestants and Catholics, Catholic France sided with the Protestants against

16660-519: The two states. The first meeting between the two heads of state took place at the private home of General de Gaulle at Colombey-les-Deux-Églises in September 1958. Since then, French and German heads of state have kept up the strong relationship, often considered as the engine of European integration. Additionally, an interministerial commission was established to coordinate and oversee the Franco-German collaboration. It consisted of high-ranked officials of every involved ministry. Just two months after

16800-659: The uprising and were caught were charged with treason , as the British authorities considered them to be British subjects. This outraged many Irish-Americans, to which the UK responded by pointing out that, just like British law, US law also recognized perpetual allegiance. As a result, Congress passed the Expatriation Act of 1868 , which granted Americans the right to freely renounce their US citizenship. The UK followed suit, and starting from 1870 British subjects who naturalized as US citizens lost their British nationality. During this time, diplomatic incidents had also arisen between

16940-554: The war resulted in a great deal of cultural exchange between the French occupiers and German population. German nationalism emerged as a strong force after 1807, as Napoleon conquered much of Germany and brought in the new ideals of the French Revolution. The French mass conscription for the Revolutionary Wars and the beginning formation of nation states in Europe made war increasingly a conflict between peoples rather than

17080-469: The war. By the war's end, the French army occupied south-west Germany and a part of Austria. Marshal Petain, who ruled France under German supervision, 1940–44, adopted the ideology of National Revolution which was originally based on ideas which had been discussed for years. When the Franco-German reconciliation committee "Comité France-Allemagne" ("French-German Friendship Committee") founded in 1935 in Paris it

17220-569: The western structures to receive full rights for the still occupied West German state as well as protection against the Soviet threat. The issue of dependency on the USA remained a sore spot at least for as long as DeGaulle remained in office (e.g. the West German parliament included a pro-NATO preamble into the Élysée Treaty , which caused considerable consternation with the French government). However, their shared interest in increased cooperation still existed and

17360-525: Was a free trade area as opposed to a customs union with common external tariffs and a political agenda, competing with the EEC as it was remarkably successful. With the threat of the Soviet Union during the Cold War , West Germany sought its national security in the re-integration into Western Europe , while France sought after a reestablishment as a Grande Nation . The post-war Franco-West German cooperation

17500-418: Was a mere strip of a mostly blurring, yet culturally rich language-border-area, roughly between the rivers Meuse and Rhine – and soon partitioned again. After the 880 Treaty of Ribemont , the border between the western and eastern kingdoms remained almost unchanged for some 600 years. Germany went on with a centuries-long attachment with Italy, while France grew into deeper relations with England. Despite

17640-523: Was a subject or citizen of a foreign power. However, the High Court of Australia also ruled that dual citizenship on its own would not be enough to disqualify someone from validly sitting in Parliament. The individual circumstances of the non-Australian citizenship must be looked at although the person must make a reasonable effort to renounce his or her non-Australian citizenship. However, if that other citizenship cannot be reasonably revoked (for example, if it

17780-545: Was also driven by strong support in the respective civil society, as it was seen as the best solution to prevent further bloodshed between the two nations. As a sequence, Jean Monnet , who has been described as the founder father and the chief architect of European Unity, announced the French Schuman plan of 9 May 1950, which led to the founding a year later of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The plan brought

17920-522: Was an important element for Germany to get closer to France. It adopted Pro-European, Pro-German, anti British, anti liberal political and economic views. Key members of the Committee became the key leaders of the French collaborators with Nazis after 1940. When Marshal Petain officially proclaimed the collaboration policy with Nazi Germany in June 1941, he justified it to the French people as an essential need for

18060-715: Was appointed the Governor General of Canada (official representative of the Queen ). Although Jean no longer holds citizenship in her native Haiti , her marriage to French-born filmmaker Jean-Daniel Lafond allowed her to obtain French citizenship several years before her appointment. Article 23-8 of the French civil code allows the French government to withdraw French nationality from French citizens holding government or military positions in other countries and Jean's appointment made her both de facto head of state and commander-in-chief of

18200-402: Was automatically a British citizen ; this was subjected to restrictions from 1983. These laws may create situations where a person may satisfy the citizenship requirements of more than one country simultaneously. This would, in the absence of laws of one country or the other, allow the person to hold multiple citizenships. National laws may include criteria as to the circumstances, if any, in which

18340-489: Was explicitly called French–German hereditary enmity . Napoleon directly incorporated German-speaking areas such as the Rhineland and Hamburg into his First French Empire and treated the monarchs of the remaining German states as vassals. Modern German nationalism was born in opposition to French domination, under Napoleon. In the recasting of the map of Europe after Napoleon's defeat, the German-speaking territories in

18480-534: Was high in symbolism, as the palace had been the site of humiliation for each country, in 1871 and 1919 . New forms of bilateral coordination between the two countries were created in the course of the 40th anniversary celebration, such as the Franco-German Ministerial Council , which meets twice a year. The celebration also led to the creation for the first time of a common Franco-German History Coursebook to be used in both countries and foster

18620-506: Was informed that France would regard him as a citizen under its jus sanguinis laws, and that the State Department could give no assurances regarding his liability for military service if he voluntarily placed himself in French jurisdiction. However, the consensus against dual nationality began to erode as a result of changes in social mores and attitudes. By the late 20th century, it was becoming gradually accepted again. Many states were lifting restrictions on dual citizenship. For example,

18760-461: Was justified through its role as guarantor of the Peace of Westphalia , and it was in fact fighting on the side of the majority of German states. Frederick the Great led the defense of Prussia for 7 years, and though heavily outnumbered, defeated his French and Austrian invaders. Prussia and France clashed multiple times, and many more times than the other countries. This started years of hatred between

18900-530: Was leaky. Many individuals continued to hold dual nationality by circumstance of birth, including most children born in the US to non-citizen parents. At the League of Nations Codification Conference, 1930 , an attempt was made to codify nationality rules into a universal worldwide treaty, the 1930 Hague Convention, whose chief aims would be to completely abolish both statelessness and dual citizenship. The 1930 Convention on Certain Questions Relating to

19040-454: Was legally resident on the island of Ireland for 3 out of the 4 years immediately before their birth (excluding residence on a student visa, awaiting an international protection decision or residence under a declaration of subsidiary protection). Some countries may take measures to avoid creation of multiple citizenship. Since a country has control only over who has its citizenship but has no control over who has any other country's citizenship,

19180-699: Was necessary because neither individual's new country permits retention of a former citizenship. Adamkus was a high-ranking official in the Environmental Protection Agency , a federal government department, during his time in the United States. Former Latvian president Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga relinquished Canadian citizenship upon taking office in 1999. In some cases, multiple citizenship can create additional tax liability. Almost all countries that impose tax normally base tax liability on source or residency. A very small number of countries tax their non-resident citizens on foreign income; examples include

19320-504: Was subjected to fierce condemnation and social shaming. It was framed as disloyalty and widely compared to bigamy . George Bancroft , the American diplomat who would later go on to negotiate the first of the Bancroft treaties, which were named for him, stated in 1849 that nations should "as soon tolerate a man with two wives as a man with two countries; as soon bear with polygamy as that state of double allegiance." In 1915, former US President Theodore Roosevelt published an article deriding

19460-478: Was talk of war and France strengthened its ties with Great Britain and Russia. The French public had very little interest in foreign affairs and elite French opinion was strongly opposed to war with its more powerful neighbor. French foreign policy was based on a fear that Germany was larger and steadily growing more powerful. In 1914 the chief pressure group was the Parti colonial , a coalition of 50 organizations with

19600-497: Was to make France a pariah nation, encouraging royalty to ridicule its new republican status, and building complex alliances with the other major powers – Austria, Russia and Great Britain – to keep France isolated, diplomatically. The short-term French reaction to defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 was Revanchism : a deep sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany, especially because of

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