The basic principles of air navigation are identical to general navigation , which includes the process of planning, recording, and controlling the movement of a craft from one place to another.
90-415: Elrey Borge Jeppesen (January 28, 1907 – November 26, 1996) was an American aviation pioneer noted for his contributions in the field of air navigation . He worked as a pilot and began making detailed notes about his routes at a time when aviators had to rely on little more than automobile road maps and landmarks for navigation. He created manuals and charts that enabled pilots to fly much more safely. Finding
180-485: A corporate citizenship program centered on charitable contributions in five areas: education, health, human services , environment , the arts , culture, and civic engagement . In February 2012, Boeing Global Corporate Citizenship partnered with the Insight Labs to develop a new model for foundations to more effectively lead the sectors they serve. The company is a member of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition ,
270-498: A de Havilland DH-4 . That same year, the United States government issued its first pilot's licenses; Jeppesen had Oregon's 27th license. His pilot license number is 7034 and was signed by Orville Wright . His Mexican pilot license number is 33. In 1930, Jeppesen joined Boeing Air Transport as an airmail pilot. On May 15, 1930, he was the pilot of the flight carrying the first stewardess , Ellen Church . ( Heinrich Kubis had been
360-462: A Washington D.C.–based coalition of more than 400 major companies and NGOs that advocate a larger International Affairs Budget, which funds American diplomatic and development efforts abroad. A series of U.S. diplomatic cables show how U.S. diplomats and senior politicians intervene on behalf of Boeing to help boost the company's sales. In 2007 and 2008, the company benefited from over US$ 10 billion of long-term loan guarantees, helping finance
450-681: A child, Jeppesen spent hours watching eagles fly, and flying became his obsession. In 1921, 14-year-old Jeppesen got his first taste of flying when a barnstormer took him up in a Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" for a 10-minute flight for US$ 4 (equivalent to $ 68 in 2023). In 1925, at the age of 18, he joined Tex Rankin 's Flying Circus "as a ticket taker, a prop turner, a wing walker , and an aerial acrobat". He soloed after two hours and 15 minutes of flying lessons and purchased his own Jenny for $ 500, using money borrowed from customers on his newspaper route. For two years beginning in 1928, he worked for Fairchild Aerial Surveys, flying photographers to map Mexico in
540-518: A company providing commercial launch services sending satellites to geostationary orbit from floating platforms. In 2000, Boeing acquired the satellite segment of Hughes Electronics . In December 1996, Boeing announced its intention to merge with McDonnell Douglas , which, following regulatory approval, was completed on August 4, 1997. The delay was caused by objections from the European Commission , which ultimately placed three conditions on
630-637: A demand existed for his work, he founded the Jeppesen company in 1934 to sell what he had developed. Jeppesen was born on January 28, 1907, in Lake Charles, Louisiana , United States. His parents were immigrants from Denmark . His father, Jens Hans Jeppesen, was an architect and builder trained in Denmark. Elrey grew up on a farm that his father had cleared and homesteaded in Odell, Oregon , before moving to Portland . As
720-432: A different ETP. Commercial aircraft are not allowed to operate along a route that is out of range of a suitable place to land if an emergency such as an engine failure occurs. The ETP calculations serve as a planning strategy, so flight crews always have an 'out' in an emergency event, allowing a safe diversion to their chosen alternate. The final stage is to note which areas the route will pass through or over, and to make
810-449: A line on the map to show the bearing from the beacon. By using a second beacon, two lines may be drawn to locate the aircraft at the intersection of the lines. This is called a cross-cut. Alternatively, if the track takes the flight directly overhead a beacon, the pilot can use the ADF instrument to maintain heading relative to the beacon, though "following the needle" is bad practice, especially in
900-400: A more sophisticated system, and is still the primary air navigation system established for aircraft flying under IFR in those countries with many navigational aids. In this system, a beacon emits a specially modulated signal which consists of two sine waves which are out of phase . The phase difference corresponds to the actual bearing relative to magnetic north (in some cases true north) that
990-478: A note of all of the things to be done – which ATC units to contact, the appropriate frequencies, visual reporting points, and so on. It is also important to note which pressure setting regions will be entered, so that the pilot can ask for the QNH (air pressure) of those regions. Finally, the pilot should have in mind some alternative plans in case the route cannot be flown for some reason – unexpected weather conditions being
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#17330859308611080-669: A potential downgrade to junk status . On November 1, 2024, the IAM endorsed an improved contract offer which would see a 38% pay rise over four years, a $ 12,000 ratification bonus, and the reinstatement of an annual bonus scheme. On November 5, 2024, Boeing workers accepted the pay deal, ending a seven-week-long walk out. The company's three divisions are: Commercial Airplanes; Defense, Space & Security; and Global Services. In 2018 and 2019 , two Boeing 737 MAX narrow-body passenger airplanes crashed, leaving 346 people dead and no survivors. In response, aviation regulators and airlines around
1170-507: A profit of US$ 9.7 billion, laying off 14,862 workers since 2008, and increasing executive pay by 31% to US$ 41.9 million in 2010 for its top five executives. Boeing has been accused of unethical practices (in violation of the Procurement Integrity Act ) while attempting to submit a revised bid to NASA for their lunar landing project. The firm has been criticized for supplying and profiting from wars , including
1260-407: A single beacon alone. For convenience, some VOR stations also transmit local weather information which the pilot can listen in to, perhaps generated by an Automated Surface Observing System . A VOR which is co-located with a DME is usually a component of a TACAN . Prior to the advent of GNSS , Celestial Navigation was also used by trained navigators on military bombers and transport aircraft in
1350-436: A surface vehicle can usually get lost, run out of fuel, then simply await rescue. There is no in-flight rescue for most aircraft. Additionally, collisions with obstructions are usually fatal. Therefore, constant awareness of position is critical for aircraft pilots. The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under visual flight rules (VFR) or instrument flight rules (IFR). In
1440-476: Is a 'wind-star' maneuver and, with no winds aloft, will place him back on his original track with his trip time increased by the length of one diversion leg. Another reason for not relying on the magnetic compass during flight, apart from calibrating the Heading indicator from time to time, is because magnetic compasses are subject to errors caused by flight conditions and other internal and external interferences on
1530-441: Is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes , rotorcraft , rockets , satellites , and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services. Boeing is among the largest global aerospace manufacturers ; it is the fourth-largest defense contractor in the world based on 2022 revenue and is the largest exporter in the United States by dollar value. Boeing
1620-509: Is closer to continue. Similarly, the Equal time point, referred to as the ETP (also critical point), is the point in the flight where it would take the same time to continue flying straight, or track back to the departure aerodrome. The ETP is not dependent on fuel, but wind, giving a change in ground speed out from, and back to the departure aerodrome. In Nil wind conditions, the ETP is located halfway between
1710-455: Is deciding where one wishes to go. A private pilot planning a flight under VFR will usually use an aeronautical chart of the area which is published specifically for the use of pilots. This map will depict controlled airspace , radio navigation aids and airfields prominently, as well as hazards to flying such as mountains, tall radio masts, etc. It also includes sufficient ground detail – towns, roads, wooded areas – to aid visual navigation. In
1800-412: Is especially true if flying in the dark or over featureless terrain. This means that the pilot must stick to the calculated headings, heights and speeds as accurately as possible, unless flying under visual flight rules . The visual pilot must regularly compare the ground with the map, ( pilotage ) to ensure that the track is being followed although adjustments are generally calculated and planned. Usually,
1890-466: Is not as easy as it might appear, unless there is no wind at all—a very rare occurrence. The pilot must adjust heading to compensate for the wind , in order to follow the ground track. Initially the pilot will calculate headings to fly for each leg of the trip prior to departure, using the forecast wind directions and speeds supplied by the meteorological authorities for the purpose . These figures are generally accurate and updated several times per day, but
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#17330859308611980-659: Is ranked 54th on the Fortune 500 list (2020), and ranked 121st on the Fortune Global 500 list (2020). The Boeing Company started in 1916, when American lumber industrialist William E. Boeing founded Pacific Aero Products Company in Seattle, Washington. Shortly before doing so, he and Conrad Westervelt created the "B&W" seaplane . In 1917, the organization was renamed Boeing Airplane Company, with William Boeing forming Boeing Airplane & Transport Corporation in 1928. In 1929,
2070-452: Is responsible for about 11% of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Aviation's share of the greenhouse gas emissions was poised to grow, as air travel increases and ground vehicles use more alternative fuels like ethanol and biodiesel . Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80%. The solution blends algae fuels with existing jet fuel . Boeing executives said
2160-539: Is sustainable only as long as orders are good and delivery rates are increasing. From 2013 to 2019, Boeing spent over $ 60 billion on dividends and stock buybacks , twice as much as the development costs of the 787. In 2020, Boeing's second quarter revenue was $ 11.8 billion as a result of the pandemic slump. Due to higher sales in other divisions and an influx in deliveries of commercial jetliners in 2021, second quarter revenue increased by 44%, reaching nearly $ 17 billion. Revenues decreased 15 percent to $ 16.9 billion in
2250-528: The COVID-19 pandemic with plans for a total 10% cut of its workforce or approximately 16,000 positions. In July 2020, Boeing reported a loss of $ 2.4 billion as a result of the pandemic and the Boeing 737 MAX groundings , and that it was in response planning to make more job and production cuts. On August 18, 2020, CEO Dave Calhoun announced further job cuts; on October 28, 2020, nearly 30,000 employees were laid off, as
2340-629: The GA pilot. Recently, many airports include GNSS instrument approaches. GNSS approaches consist of either overlays to existing precision and non-precision approaches or stand-alone GNSS approaches. Approaches having the lowest decision heights generally require that GNSS be augmented by a second system—e.g., the FAA's Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). Civilian flight navigators (a mostly redundant aircrew position, also called 'air navigator' or 'flight navigator'), were employed on older aircraft, typically between
2430-854: The Israel-Gaza war (2023-present) , demonstrations sought to block shipments of weapons for the Israel Defense Forces at Boeing facilities in St. Charles, Missouri , Tukwila, Washington , and Gresham, Oregon . Students at Florida State University , University of Washington , Saint Louis University , University of Missouri–St. Louis , and Washington University in St. Louis called for their institutions to break partnerships with Boeing. Research estimates that Boeing has made between $ 50 billion to $ 100 billion in revenue from sales to Israel. In 2024, students on hunger strike at Brown University named Boeing among
2520-508: The Jeppesen Airway Manual for navigation. In 1934, as demand picked up, Jeppesen founded Jeppesen & Co. in the basement of his Salt Lake City home to sell his information for $ 10 (equivalent to $ 228 in 2023) a copy. On September 24, 1936, Jeppesen married his flight attendant, Nadine Liscomb . She helped him run his company, working as secretary and treasurer until the company was sold in 1961. On June 10, 1941, Jeppesen
2610-565: The Simi Hills of eastern Ventura County in Southern California , had been contaminated by Rocketdyne with toxic and radioactive waste . Boeing agreed to a cleanup agreement with the EPA in 2017. Clean-up studies and lawsuits are in progress. On July 19, 2022, Boeing announced a renewed partnership with Mitsubishi to produce carbon-neutral and sustainable solutions. The airline industry
2700-544: The UK , the CAA publishes a series of maps covering the whole of the UK at various scales, updated annually. The information is also updated in the notices to airmen , or NOTAMs. The pilot will choose a route, taking care to avoid controlled airspace that is not permitted for the flight, restricted areas, danger areas and so on. The chosen route is plotted on the map, and the lines drawn are called
2790-480: The jatropha plant to see if it is a sustainable alternative to conventional fuel. A two-hour test flight using a 50–50 mixture of the new biofuel with Jet A-1 in a Rolls-Royce RB-211 engine of a 747–400 was completed on December 30, 2008. The engine was then removed to be studied to identify any differences between the Jatropha blend and regular Jet A1. No effects on performances were found. In 2008 and 2009, Boeing
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2880-466: The lowest safe altitude (LSALT), bearings (in both directions), and distance marked for each route. IFR pilots may fly on other routes but they then must perform all such calculations themselves; the LSALT calculation is the most difficult. The pilot then needs to look at the weather and minimum specifications for landing at the destination airport and the alternate requirements. Pilots must also comply with all
2970-402: The track . The aim of all subsequent navigation is to follow the chosen track as accurately as possible. Occasionally, the pilot may elect on one leg to follow a clearly visible feature on the ground such as a railway track, river, highway, or coast. When an aircraft is in flight, it is moving relative to the body of air through which it is flying; therefore maintaining an accurate ground track
3060-579: The Boeing 737 MAX 9. The FAA announced on January 12 that it was expanding its scrutiny of Boeing, with a production audit of the 737 MAX 9. On February 6, the National Transportation Safety Board released a preliminary report indicating that four bolts used to secure the panel had been removed, and appeared not to have been replaced, at Boeing’s factory in Renton, Washington . In March 2024,
3150-508: The DI periodically. The compass itself will only show a steady reading when the aircraft has been in straight and level flight long enough to allow it to settle. Should the pilot be unable to complete a leg – for example bad weather arises, or the visibility falls below the minima permitted by the pilot's license, the pilot must divert to another route. Since this is an unplanned leg, the pilot must be able to mentally calculate suitable headings to give
3240-591: The Justice Department opened a criminal investigation into the Alaska Airlines blowout. In March 2024, CEO Dave Calhoun and board chairman Larry Kellner both announced they would be stepping down from their positions. In 2006, the UCLA Center for Environmental Risk Reduction released a study showing that Boeing's Santa Susana Field Laboratory , a site that was a former Rocketdyne test and development site in
3330-453: The PNR, is the point on a flight at which a plane has just enough fuel, plus any mandatory reserve, to return to the airfield from which it departed. Beyond this point that option is closed, and the plane must proceed to some other destination. Alternatively, with respect to a large region without airfields, e.g. an ocean, it can mean the point before which it is closer to turn around and after which it
3420-477: The United States Army and Navy kept Jeppesen busy supplying them with his charts. Jeppesen retired from United Airlines (into which Boeing Air Transport had merged) in 1954. In 1961, Jeppesen sold his company, staying on as chairman. On November 26, 1996, Jeppesen died at the age of 89. The Jeppesen Company continues to exist today, currently as a subsidiary of Boeing Commercial Airplanes , which acquired
3510-490: The aggregate navigation aids present within the applicable airspace. Once these determinations have been made, the operator develops a route that is the most time and fuel efficient while respecting all applicable safety concerns—thereby maximizing both the aircraft's and the airspace's overall performance capabilities. Under the PBN approach, technologies evolve over time (e.g., ground beacons become satellite beacons) without requiring
3600-577: The airplane manufacturer was increasingly losing money due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2022, Boeing announced plans to move its global headquarters from Chicago to Arlington, Virginia , a suburb of Washington, D.C. The company said that this decision was made in part to concentrate on its defense work with "proximity to our customers and stakeholders". After the January 2024 Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 and other incidents, one shareholder proposed relocating
3690-401: The airplane was malfunctioning, and ultimately plummeted nose-down to the ground at terrifying speed". While the investigations into the crashes of the 737 MAX were proceeding, the Boeing 777X , the company's largest capacity twin jet and the largest ever built, made its maiden flight on January 25, 2020, but also experienced problems. Following an incident during flight testing in 2021,
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3780-463: The business in October 2000. A 16-foot (4.9 m) statue of Jeppesen, by artist George Lundeen, was in the center of the main terminal at Denver International Airport . Around the base of the statue was the accolade: "Airmail Pilot - Airline Captain - Wing Walker - Air Navigation Pioneer - Barnstormer - Air Safety Pioneer - Businessman - Instructor". The main terminal is also named in his honor. Jeppesen
3870-553: The company was collaborating with Brazilian biofuels maker Tecbio , Aquaflow Bionomic of New Zealand, and other fuel developers around the world. As of 2007, Boeing had tested six fuels from these companies, and expected to test 20 fuels "by the time we're done evaluating them". Boeing also joined other aviation-related members in the Algal Biomass Organization (ABO) in June 2008. Air New Zealand and Boeing are researching
3960-492: The company was renamed United Aircraft and Transport Corporation , followed by the acquisition of several aircraft makers such as Avion, Chance Vought , Sikorsky Aviation , Stearman Aircraft , Pratt & Whitney , and Hamilton Metalplane. In 1931, the group merged its four smaller airlines into United Airlines . In 1934, aircraft manufacturing was required to be separate from air transportation. Therefore, Boeing Airplane Company became one of three major groups to arise from
4050-419: The company's hiding of information from the safety regulators: a criminal monetary penalty of $ 243.6 million, $ 1.77 billion of damages to airline customers, and a $ 500 million crash-victim beneficiaries fund. In September 2022, Boeing was ordered to pay a further $ 200 million over charges of misleading investors about safety issues related to these crashes. In March 2023, Boeing disputed in court filings that
4140-408: The company. The average salary at Boeing was $ 76,784 in 2011, as reported by former employees. In 2022, Rory Kennedy made a documentary film, Downfall: The Case Against Boeing , streamed by Netflix . She said about the 21st-century history of Boeing "There were many decades when Boeing did extraordinary things by focusing on excellence and safety and ingenuity. Those three virtues were seen as
4230-624: The corporate headquarters back to the Seattle area in hopes of getting engineering and quality control teams on-site access to key decision-makers. Boeing's board soundly dismissed the attempt. In February 2023, Boeing announced plans for laying off approximately 2,000 of its workers from finances and human resources. In May 2023, Boeing acquired autonomous eVTOL air taxi startup Wisk Aero . In June 2024, Boeing agreed to re-acquire Spirit AeroSystems , its longtime supplier of airplane parts, which had been established in 2005 when Boeing spun-off its Wichita division to an investment firm. The deal
4320-502: The crashes through a disintegration of workplace morale . In June 2020, the Federal Aviation Administration found several 737 MAX defects that Boeing deferred to fix, in violation of regulations . In September 2020, the U.S. House of Representatives concluded its own investigation and cited numerous instances where Boeing dismissed employee concerns with a 737 MAX flight stabilizing feature ( MCAS ) that caused
4410-424: The desired new track. Using the flight computer in flight is usually impractical, so mental techniques to give rough and ready results are used. The wind is usually allowed for by assuming that sine A = A, for angles less than 60° (when expressed in terms of a fraction of 60° – e.g. 30° is 1/2 of 60°, and sine 30° = 0.5), which is adequately accurate. A method for computing this mentally is the clock code . However
4500-562: The dissolution of United Aircraft and Transport; the other two entities were United Aircraft (later United Technologies ) and United Airlines. In 1960, the company bought Vertol Aircraft Corporation , which at the time, was the biggest independent manufacturer of helicopters . During the 1960s and 1970s, the company diversified into industries such as outer space travel, marine craft, agriculture, energy production and transit systems. In 1995, Boeing partnered with Russian, Ukrainian, and Anglo-Norwegian organizations to create Sea Launch ,
4590-468: The end of the leg. This is also a point to reassess the estimated time for the leg. A good pilot will become adept at applying a variety of techniques to stay on track. While the compass is the primary instrument used to determine one's heading, pilots will usually refer instead to the direction indicator (DI), a gyroscopically driven device which is much more stable than a compass. The compass reading will be used to correct for any drift ( precession ) of
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#17330859308614680-418: The estimated first delivery of the aircraft was delayed until 2024. After further technical problems were discovered in the aircraft in 2022, the release was delayed again until 2025, six years after the original date. On January 5, 2024, on Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 , a door plug blowout occurred on a 737 MAX 9 jetliner after the plane had reached just over 16,000 feet, leaving a door-sized hole in
4770-549: The event of all electronic navigational aids being turned off in time of war. Originally navigators used an astrodome and regular sextant but the more streamlined periscopic sextant was used from the 1940s to the 1990s. From the 1970s airliners used inertial navigation systems , especially on inter-continental routes, until the shooting down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in 1983 prompted the US government to make GPS available for civilian use. Finally, an aircraft may be supervised from
4860-595: The first male flight attendant in 1912.) While airway beacons assisted aerial navigation on specific routes, most pilots at that time depended on dead reckoning , generally using automobile road maps (such as those from oil companies or commercial mapmakers), railroad tracks, and landmarks to find their way. Jeppesen purchased a 10-cent notebook and started writing down detailed notes about his routes. He even climbed hills to determine their height and collected telephone numbers of farmers willing to provide weather reports. Word got around about his "little black book", and soon he
4950-441: The first time since 2008. On October 12, 2024, the company announced plans to cut 17,000 jobs, about 10% of its global workforce, "to align with our financial reality". It would also delay the first deliveries of its 777X airliner by a year and recorded $ 5 billion in losses in the third quarter of the year. On October 28, Boeing initiated a significant share sale, valued at nearly $ 19 billion, to address cash-flow issues and avoid
5040-438: The fuselage and the aircraft made an emergency landing at Portland International Airport successfully with several people onboard injured, although all had subsequently been "medically cleared". The FAA mandated immediate inspections of all 737 MAX 9s fitted with door plugs, thereby grounding 171 aircraft. United Airlines found loose bolts on jets grounded by the FAA, raising questions about possible systemic problems with
5130-538: The ground using surveillance information from e.g. radar or multilateration . ATC can then feed back information to the pilot to help establish position, or can actually tell the pilot the position of the aircraft, depending on the level of ATC service the pilot is receiving. The use of GNSS in aircraft is becoming increasingly common. GNSS provides very precise aircraft position, altitude, heading and ground speed information. GNSS makes navigation precision once reserved to large RNAV -equipped aircraft available to
5220-458: The highest-ever tax breaks at the state level in 2013. Boeing's spent US$ 16.9 million on lobbying expenditures in 2009. In the 2008 presidential election , Barack Obama "was by far the biggest recipient of campaign contributions from Boeing employees and executives, hauling in US$ 197,000 – five times as much as John McCain , and more than the top eight Republicans combined". Boeing has
5310-470: The late-1910s and the 1970s. The crew member, occasionally two navigation crew members for some flights, was responsible for the trip navigation, including its dead reckoning and celestial navigation . This was especially essential when trips were flown over oceans or other large bodies of water, where radio navigation aids were not originally available. (satellite coverage is now provided worldwide). As sophisticated electronic and GNSS systems came online,
5400-476: The latter case, the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation aids such as beacons, or as directed under radar control by air traffic control . In the former case, a pilot will largely navigate using " dead reckoning " combined with visual observations (known as pilotage ), with reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids or satellite based positioning systems . The first step in navigation
5490-515: The latter won, and that this may have contributed to the events leading up to the 737 MAX crash crisis. Boeing's corporate headquarters moved from Seattle to Chicago in 2001. In 2018, the company opened its first factory in Europe at Sheffield , UK, reinforced by a research partnership with the University of Sheffield . In May 2020, the company cut over 12,000 jobs due to the drop in air travel during
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#17330859308615580-417: The laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on the ground . Air navigation differs from the navigation of surface craft in several ways; Aircraft travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate their position en route. Aircraft normally cannot stop in mid-air to ascertain their position at leisure. Aircraft are safety-limited by the amount of fuel they can carry;
5670-742: The list of corporations to divest from. Five protesters in solidarity with the Palestinian cause were arrested on felony charges after blocking entrances to a Boeing facility in Heath, Ohio . The student union at Washington University in St. Louis passed a resolution calling on the university to divest from Boeing. The key trends of Boeing are (as at the financial year ending December 31): Between 2010 and 2018, Boeing increased its operating cash flow from $ 3 to $ 15.3 billion, sustaining its share price, by negotiating advance payments from customers and delaying payments to its suppliers. This strategy
5760-444: The magnet system. Many GA aircraft are fitted with a variety of navigation aids, such as Automatic direction finder (ADF), inertial navigation , compasses , radar navigation , VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) and Global navigation satellite system (GNSS). ADF uses non-directional beacons (NDBs) on the ground to drive a display which shows the direction of the beacon from the aircraft. The pilot may use this bearing to draw
5850-477: The merger: exclusivity agreements with three US airlines would be terminated, separate accounts would be maintained for the McDonnell-Douglas civil aircraft business, and some defense patents were to be made available to competitors. In 2020, Quartz reported that after the merger there was a "clash of corporate cultures, where Boeing's engineers and McDonnell Douglas's bean-counters went head-to-head", which
5940-465: The most common. At times the pilot may be required to file a flight plan for an alternate destination and to carry adequate fuel for this. The more work a pilot can do on the ground prior to departure, the easier it will be in the air. Instrument flight rules (IFR) navigation is similar to visual flight rules (VFR) flight planning except that the task is generally made simpler by the use of special charts that show IFR routes from beacon to beacon with
6030-444: The navigator's position in commercial aviation (but not necessarily military aviation) became redundant. (Some countries task their air forces to fly without navigation aids during wartime , thus still requiring a navigator's position). Most civilian air navigators were retired or made redundant by the early 1980s. Citations Bibliography Boeing The Boeing Company , or simply Boeing ( / ˈ b oʊ ɪ ŋ / ),
6120-450: The navigator's position was discontinued and its function was assumed by dual-licensed pilot-navigators, and still later by the flight's primary pilots (Captain and First Officer), resulting in a downsizing in the number of aircrew positions for commercial flights. As the installation of electronic navigation systems into the Captain's and FO's instrument panels was relatively straight forward,
6210-426: The pilot must also allow for this, called the magnetic variation (or declination). The variation that applies locally is also shown on the flight map. Once the pilot has calculated the actual headings required, the next step is to calculate the flight times for each leg. This is necessary to perform accurate dead reckoning . The pilot also needs to take into account the slower initial airspeed during climb to calculate
6300-418: The pilot must be extra vigilant when flying diversions to maintain awareness of position. Some diversions can be temporary – for example to skirt around a local storm cloud. In such cases, the pilot can turn 60 degrees away his desired heading for a given period of time. Once clear of the storm, he can then turn back in the opposite direction 120 degrees, and fly this heading for the same length of time. This
6390-435: The pilot will fly for some time as planned to a point where features on the ground are easily recognised. If the wind is different from that expected, the pilot must adjust heading accordingly, but this is not done by guesswork, but by mental calculation – often using the 1 in 60 rule . For example, a two degree error at the halfway stage can be corrected by adjusting heading by four degrees the other way to arrive in position at
6480-399: The presence of a strong cross wind – the pilot's actual track will spiral in towards the beacon, not what was intended. NDBs also can give erroneous readings because they use very long wavelengths , which are easily bent and reflected by ground features and the atmosphere. NDBs continue to be used as a common form of navigation in some countries with relatively few navigational aids. VOR is
6570-613: The purchase of their commercial aircraft in countries including Brazil, Canada, Ireland, and the United Arab Emirates , from the Export-Import Bank of the United States , some 65% of the total loan guarantees the bank made in the period. In December 2011, the non-partisan organization Public Campaign criticized Boeing for spending US$ 52.29 million on lobbying and not paying taxes from 2008 to 2010, instead getting US$ 178 million in tax rebates , despite making
6660-442: The receiver is from the station. The upshot is that the receiver can determine with certainty the exact bearing from the station. Again, a cross-cut is used to pinpoint the location. Many VOR stations also have additional equipment called DME ( distance measuring equipment ) which will allow a suitable receiver to determine the exact distance from the station. Together with the bearing, this allows an exact position to be determined from
6750-466: The rules including their legal ability to use a particular instrument approach depending on how recently they last performed one. In recent years, strict beacon-to-beacon flight paths have started to be replaced by routes derived through performance-based navigation (PBN) techniques. When operators develop flight plans for their aircraft, the PBN approach encourages them to assess the overall accuracy, integrity, availability, continuity, and functionality of
6840-510: The second quarter of 2024, compared to the same time period in 2023. The company's operating loss amounted to $ 1.39 billion and its net loss to $ 1.43 billion, while plane deliveries fell to 92 (from 136 in 2023). The company's employment totals are listed below. Approximately 1.5% of Boeing employees are in the Technical Fellowship program, a program through which Boeing's top engineers and scientists set technical direction for
6930-444: The time to top of climb. It is also helpful to calculate the top of descent, or the point at which the pilot would plan to commence the descent for landing. The flight time will depend on both the desired cruising speed of the aircraft, and the wind – a tailwind will shorten flight times, a headwind will increase them. The flight computer has scales to help pilots compute these easily. The point of no return , sometimes referred to as
7020-603: The two aerodromes, but in reality it is shifted depending on the windspeed and direction. The aircraft that is flying across the Ocean for example, would be required to calculate ETPs for one engine inoperative, depressurization, and a normal ETP; all of which could actually be different points along the route. For example, in one engine inoperative and depressurization situations the aircraft would be forced to lower operational altitudes, which would affect its fuel consumption, cruise speed and ground speed. Each situation therefore would have
7110-451: The two fatal accidents, prioritized deadline and budget constraints over safety , and lacked transparency in disclosing essential information to the FAA. It further found that the assumption that simulator training would not be necessary had "diminished safety, minimized the value of pilot training , and inhibited technical design improvements". On January 7, 2021, Boeing settled to pay over $ 2.5 billion after being charged with fraud over
7200-410: The underlying aircraft operation to be recalculated. Also, navigation specifications used to assess the sensors and equipment that are available in an airspace can be cataloged and shared to inform equipment upgrade decisions and the ongoing harmonization of the world's various air navigation systems. Once in flight, the pilot must take pains to stick to plan, otherwise getting lost is all too easy. This
7290-475: The unpredictable nature of the weather means that the pilot must be prepared to make further adjustments in flight. A general aviation (GA) pilot will often make use of either a flight computer – a type of slide rule – or a purpose-designed electronic navigational computer to calculate initial headings. The primary instrument of navigation is the magnetic compass . The needle or card aligns itself to magnetic north , which does not coincide with true north , so
7380-492: The victims of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 (the 2019 crash) experienced any pain and suffering in the final six minutes as the plane was nosediving into the ground, citing "speed of sound" as a defence. Boeing's claim was described as "preposterous" by HuffPost : Passengers aboard the plane, the plaintiffs argued in court, "undeniably suffered horrific emotional distress, pain and suffering, and physical impact/injury while they endured extreme G-forces, braced for impact, knew
7470-489: The war in Yemen where its missiles were found to be used for indiscriminate attacks, killing many civilians. In 2017 Boeing signed a deal with Saudi Arabia which included Saudi Arabia buying military aircraft and guided missile systems. In 2023, it was reported that Boeing sent 1,000 small diameter bombs for the first week of Israeli air attacks on Gaza that were shipped from a US Air Force base by Israeli Air Force . During
7560-405: The world grounded all 737 MAX airliners. A total of 387 aircraft were grounded. Boeing's reputation, business, and financial rating suffered after the groundings, as Boeing's strategy, governance, and focus on profits and cost efficiency were questioned. In 2022, Netflix released an exposé, Downfall: The Case Against Boeing , claiming Boeing's corporate merger with McDonnell Douglas led to
7650-721: Was founded by William E. Boeing in Seattle , Washington, on July 15, 1916. The present corporation is the result of the merger of Boeing with McDonnell Douglas on August 1, 1997. As of 2023, the Boeing Company's corporate headquarters is located in the Crystal City neighborhood of Arlington County, Virginia . The company is organized into three primary divisions: Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA), Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS), and Boeing Global Services (BGS). In 2021, Boeing recorded $ 62.3 billion in sales. Boeing
7740-470: Was giving copies to his fellow pilots. Jeppesen was the first to design en-route procedures, let-down procedures, approach procedures, and the all-important, missed-approach procedure. If the weather were bad and visibility dropped to zero, if the Jeppesen Airway Manual had a missed approach procedure for that particular airport, the pilot could use it to determine to what heading to turn, how to miss any mountains, and how high to climb. Today, many airlines use
7830-601: Was initially discussed in March of the same year before being closed on June 30 at $ 4.7 billion. On September 12, 2024, a vote was held among Boeing machinist workers who are also members of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers (IAM) labor union, with 94.6% of participating members rejected a contract offer that the union's bargaining committee had endorsed, with 96% voting to strike. At 12:01 am on September 13, Boeing workers went on strike for
7920-474: Was involved in an accident at Denver Municipal Airport . While landing in a rainstorm, the United DC-3 aircraft overran the landing area, traveling through the airport boundary lights and into a 3 ft (1 m) ditch where the right landing gear failed. Neither the crew nor any of the 15 passengers were injured, but the aircraft itself sustained major damage. In the 1940s, with the onset of World War II ,
8010-420: Was second on the list of Top 100 US Federal Contractors , with contracts totaling US$ 22 billion and US$ 23 billion respectively. Between 1995 and early 2021, the company agreed to pay US$ 4.3 billion to settle 84 instances of misconduct, including US$ 615 million in 2006 in relation to illegal hiring of government officials and improper use of proprietary information. Boeing secured
8100-542: Was the first passenger to disembark from the first flight to arrive at the new airport, United Flight 1474 from Colorado Springs. The Museum of Flight holds the Elrey B. Jeppesen Collection in its archives. A facsimile of the Little Black Book is also on display in the museum's galleries. Air navigation Successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, not breaking
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