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65-481: The auditorium opened in 1924 as a multipurpose concert hall, convention center, and athletic arena. The first performance was held by John Philip Sousa . The building opened as the Memphis Auditorium and Market House and was renamed for Memphis Chamber of Commerce President Robert R. Ellis after his death in 1930. The auditorium was segregated and had a separate entrance and balcony for black patrons, and in 1945

130-576: A 6,000-strong all-white crowd who watched the all-black Harlem Globetrotters play in 1953. The Memphis Tigers basketball team also played select games at Ellis. They upset number 3 ranked Louisville at the venue in February 1957. Ellis Auditorium was demolished in 1999 and replaced by the Cannon Center for the Performing Arts at the same location. This Tennessee sports venue-related article

195-641: A cornet soloist with Sousa), Rosario Bourdon , Josef Pasternack , or Nathaniel Shilkret . Details of the Victor recordings are available in the external link below to the EDVR. After the introduction of electrical recording in 1925 Sousa changed his mind about phonograph records. After a demonstration of the Orthophonic Victrola on October 6, 1925, at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel he said, "[Gentlemen], that

260-408: A correlation of 97% between autism and absolute pitch, with a 53% correlation in non-autistic observers. However, the converse is not indicated by research which found no difference between those with absolute pitch and those without on measures of social and communication skills, which are core deficits in autistic spectrum disorders. Additionally, the absolute pitch group's autism-spectrum quotient

325-471: A deal with the Devil for a magic violin with five strings. The first four strings excite the emotions of Pity, Hope, Love, and Joy, but the fifth string, made from the hair of Eve, will cause the player's death once played. The violinist wins the love of the woman he desires, but out of jealous suspicion, she commands him to play the death string, which he does. Sousa published Pipetown Sandy in 1905, which includes

390-629: A discharge from the Marine Corps to pursue a financially promising civilian career as a band leader. He conducted a farewell concert at the White House on July 30, 1892, and was discharged from the Marine Corps the next day. Sousa organized The Sousa Band the year that he left the Marine Band, and it toured from 1892 to 1931 and performed at 15,623 concerts, both in America and internationally, including at

455-439: A fixed key and play it from memory on their instrument, but they are not required to sing. When tested, these students did not succeed in singing the memorized Suzuki songs in the original, fixed key. Musicians with absolute perception may experience difficulties which do not exist for other musicians. Because absolute listeners are capable of recognizing that a musical composition has been transposed from its original key, or that

520-554: A label for the frequency (such as "B-flat"), and exposure to the range of sound encompassed by that categorical label. Absolute pitch may be directly analogous to recognizing colors , phonemes (speech sounds), or other categorical perception of sensory stimuli . For example, most people have learned to recognize and name the color blue by the range of frequencies of the electromagnetic radiation that are perceived as light ; those who have been exposed to musical notes together with their names early in life may be more likely to identify

585-467: A modified helicon created in 1893 by Philadelphia instrument maker J. W. Pepper at Sousa's request, using several of his suggestions in its design. Sousa wanted a tuba that could sound upward and over the band whether its player was seated or marching. C.G. Conn recreated the instrument in 1898, and this was the model that Sousa preferred to use. Sousa held a very low opinion of the emerging recording industry. He derided recordings as "canned music",

650-470: A performance of Annie, Get Your Gun did not go ahead because the cast included black members. Elvis Presley played Ellis Auditorium on May 15, 1956, to open the Cotton Carnival. Presley also made a number of other appearances at the venue. Other performers who played Ellis include David Bowie (1972) and Bruce Springsteen (1976 and 1996). Ellis Auditorium also hosted basketball events, including

715-564: A pitch is being produced at a nonstandard frequency (either sharp or flat), a musician with absolute pitch may become confused upon perceiving tones believed to be "wrong" or hearing a piece of music "in the wrong key". The relative pitch of the notes may be in tune to each other, but out of tune to the standard pitch or pitches the musician is familiar with or perceives as correct. This can especially apply to Baroque music , as many Baroque orchestras tune to A = 415 Hz as opposed to 440 Hz (i.e., roughly one standard semitone lower than

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780-745: A political activist for the Republican Party. Sousa was decorated with the palms of the Order of Public Instruction of Portugal and the Order of Academic Palms of France. He also received the Royal Victorian Medal from King Edward VII of the United Kingdom in December 1901 for conducting a private birthday concert for Queen Alexandra . In 1922, Sousa accepted the invitation of the national chapter to become an honorary member of Kappa Kappa Psi ,

845-550: A predisposition for learning the ability or signal the likelihood of its spontaneous occurrence. Researchers have been trying to teach absolute pitch ability in laboratory settings for more than a century, and various commercial absolute-pitch training courses have been offered to the public since the early 1900s. In 2013, experimenters reported that adult men who took the antiseizure drug valproate (VPA) "learned to identify pitch significantly better than those taking placebo—evidence that VPA facilitated critical-period learning in

910-463: A reference to the early wax cylinder records that came in can-like cylindrical cardboard boxes. He argued to a congressional hearing in 1906: These talking machines are going to ruin the artistic development of music in this country. When I was a boy... in front of every house in the summer evenings, you would find young people together singing the songs of the day or old songs. Today you hear these infernal machines going night and day. We will not have

975-612: A rehearsal of " The Stars and Stripes Forever " the day before with the Ringgold Band as its guest conductor. Sousa is buried at Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C. Every year on November 6, the Marine Band performs Semper Fidelis at Sousa's grave. His house Wildbank has been designated as a National Historic Landmark, although it remains a private home and is not open to the public. Sousa has surviving descendants today; one of his great-grandsons, John Philip Sousa IV, works as

1040-510: A satirical poem titled "The Feast of the Monkeys". He wrote a 40,000-word story entitled "The Transit of Venus" in 1920. Sousa also wrote the booklet "A manual for trumpet and drum", published by the Ludwig Drum Company with advice for playing drums and trumpet. An early version of the trumpet solo to "Semper Fidelis" was included in this volume. The marching brass bass or sousaphone is

1105-429: A tone language, even those with little musical training, are observed to sing a given song with consistent pitch. Among music students of East Asian ethnic heritage, those who speak a tone language fluently have a higher prevalence of absolute pitch than those who do not speak a tone language. African level-tone languages—such as Yoruba , with three pitch levels, and Mambila , with four—may be better suited to study

1170-510: A vocal cord left. The vocal cord will be eliminated by a process of evolution, as was the tail of man when he came from the ape. Sousa's antipathy to recording was such that he very rarely conducted his band when it was being recorded. Nevertheless, the band made numerous recordings, the earliest being issued on cylinders by several companies, followed by many recordings on discs by the Berliner Gramophone Company and its successor,

1235-439: A way that superficially resembles absolute pitch. Some people have been able to develop accurate pitch identification in adulthood through training. Scientific studies of absolute pitch commenced in the 19th century, focusing on the phenomenon of musical pitch and methods of measuring it. It would have been difficult for the notion of absolute pitch to have formed earlier because pitch references were not consistent. For example,

1300-524: A word in the same absolute pitch (within a quarter-tone) on different days; it has therefore been suggested that absolute pitch may be acquired by infants when they learn to speak a tonal language (and possibly also by infants when they learn to speak a pitch-accent language ). However, the brains of tonal-language speakers do not naturally process musical sound as language; such speakers may be more likely to acquire absolute pitch for musical tones when they later receive musical training. Many native speakers of

1365-436: Is microtonal or whose frequencies do not match standard 12-tone equal temperament. It is also possible for some musicians to have displaced absolute pitch, where all notes are slightly flat or slightly sharp of their respective pitch as defined by a given convention. This may arise from learning the pitch names from an instrument that was tuned to a concert pitch convention other than the one in use (e.g., A = 435 Hz,

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1430-406: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . John Philip Sousa John Philip Sousa ( / ˈ s uː z ə , ˈ s uː s ə / SOO -zə, SOO -sə , Portuguese: [ˈso(w)zɐ] ; November 6, 1854 – March 6, 1932) was an American composer and conductor of the late Romantic era known primarily for American military marches . He is known as "The March King" or

1495-413: Is a band. This is the first time I have ever heard music with any soul to it produced by a mechanical talking machine." Sousa also appeared with his band in newsreels and on radio broadcasts, beginning with a 1929 nationwide broadcast on NBC . In 1999, "Legacy" Records released some of Sousa's historic recordings on CD. Even after his death, Sousa continues to be remembered as "The March King" through

1560-512: Is evidence of a higher rate of absolute pitch in the autistic population. Many studies have examined pitch abilities in autism, but not rigidly perfect pitch, which makes them controversial. It is unclear just how many people with autism have perfect pitch because of this. In a 2009 study, researchers studied 72 teenagers with autism and found that 20 percent of the teenagers had a significant ability to detect pitches. Children with autism are especially sensitive to changes in pitch. Absolute pitch

1625-563: Is higher among those who are blind from birth as a result of optic nerve hypoplasia . Absolute pitch is considerably more common among those whose early childhood was spent in East Asia . This might seem to be a genetic difference; however, people of East Asian ancestry who are reared in North America are significantly less likely to develop absolute pitch than those raised in East Asia, so

1690-416: Is more common among speakers of tonal languages , such as most dialects of Chinese or Vietnamese , which depend on pitch variation to distinguish words that otherwise sound the same—e.g., Mandarin with four possible tonal variations, Cantonese with nine, Southern Min with seven or eight (depending on dialect), and Vietnamese with six. Speakers of Sino-Tibetan languages have been reported to speak

1755-482: Is not a prerequisite for skilled musical performance or composition. However, there is evidence that musicians with absolute pitch tend to perform better on musical transcription tasks (controlling for age of onset and amount of musical training) compared to those without absolute pitch. It was previously argued that musicians with absolute pitch perform worse than those without absolute pitch on recognition of musical intervals; however, experiments on which this conclusion

1820-407: Is the ability to identify or re-create a given musical note without the benefit of a reference tone . AP may be demonstrated using linguistic labelling ("naming" a note), associating mental imagery with the note, or sensorimotor responses. For example, an AP possessor can accurately reproduce a heard tone on a musical instrument without "hunting" for the correct pitch . The frequency of AP in

1885-522: Is typically no keener than that of a non-absolute ("normal") listener. Absolute pitch does not depend upon a refined ability to perceive and discriminate gradations of sound frequencies, but upon detecting and categorizing a subjective perceptual quality typically referred to as "chroma". The two tasks— of identification (recognizing and naming a pitch) and discrimination (detecting changes or differences in rate of vibration)— are accomplished with different brain mechanisms. The prevalence of absolute pitch

1950-626: The John Church Company , and the Sam Fox Publishing Company , the last association beginning in 1917 and continuing until his death. Some of his more well-known marches include: Sousa wrote marches for several American universities, including the University of Minnesota , University of Illinois , University of Nebraska , Kansas State University , Marquette University , Pennsylvania Military College ( Widener University ), and

2015-763: The John Philip Sousa Foundation . The non-profit organization, founded in 1981, recognizes one superior student in marching band for "musicianship, dependability, loyalty, and cooperation." The John Philip Sousa Foundation provides awards, scholarships, and projects such as The Sudler Trophy, The Sudler Shield, The Sudler Silver Scroll, The Sudler Flag of Honor, The Historic Roll of Honor, The Sudler Cup, The Hawkins Scholarship, National Young Artists, The National Community Band, and The Junior Honor Band Project. He won many honorable awards across his lifetime. Articles Dissertations Perfect pitch Absolute pitch ( AP ), often called perfect pitch ,

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2080-459: The Paris Opera convention of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as opposed to the modern Euro-American convention for concert A = 442 Hz). Concert pitches have shifted higher for a brighter sound. When playing in groups with other musicians, this may lead to playing in a tonality that is slightly different from that of the rest of the group, such as when soloists tune slightly sharp of

2145-487: The United States Marine Band as an apprentice in 1868. Sousa left the band in 1875, and over the next five years, he performed as a violinist and learned to conduct. In 1880, Sousa rejoined the Marine Band and served there for 12 years as director. In 1892 he left the Marine Band and organized the civilian Sousa Band. From 1880 until his death, Sousa focused exclusively on conducting and writing music. He aided in

2210-451: The University of Michigan . Sousa wrote many notable operettas, including: Marches and waltzes have been derived from many of these stage-works. Sousa also composed the music for six operettas that were either unfinished or not produced: The Devils' Deputy , Florine , The Irish Dragoon , Katherine , The Victory , and The Wolf . In addition, Sousa wrote a march based on themes from Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic opera The Mikado ,

2275-538: The Victor Talking Machine Company (later RCA Victor ). The Berliner recordings were conducted by Henry Higgins (one of Sousa's cornet soloists) and Arthur Pryor (Sousa's trombone soloist and assistant conductor). Sousa claimed that he had "never been in the gramophone company's office in my life". Sousa did conduct a few of the Victor recordings, but most were conducted by Pryor, Herbert L. Clarke , Edwin H. Clarke, Walter B. Rogers (who had also been

2340-834: The World Exposition in Paris and at the Royal Albert Hall in London. In Paris, the Sousa Band marched through the streets to the Arc de Triomphe , one of only eight parades that the band marched in during its 40 years. Sousa was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Naval Reserve on May 31, 1917, shortly after the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I . He was 62 years old,

2405-641: The "American March King", to distinguish him from his British counterpart Kenneth J. Alford . Among Sousa's best-known marches are " The Stars and Stripes Forever " (National March of the United States of America ), " Semper Fidelis " (official march of the United States Marine Corps ), " The Liberty Bell ", " The Thunderer ", and " The Washington Post ". Sousa began his career playing violin and studying music theory and composition under John Esputa and George Felix Benkert. Sousa's father enlisted him in

2470-971: The ISO standard for concert A), while other recordings of Baroque pieces (especially those of French Baroque music) are performed at 392 Hz. Historically, tuning forks for concert A used on keyboard instruments (which ensembles tune to when present), have varied widely in frequency, often between 415 Hz to 456.7 Hz. Variances in the sizes of intervals for different keys and the method of tuning instruments also can affect musicians in their perception of correct pitch, especially with music synthesized digitally using alternative tunings (e.g., unequal well temperaments and alternative meantone tunings such as 19-tone equal temperament and 31-tone equal temperament ) as opposed to 12-tone equal temperament . An absolute listener may also use absolute strategies for tasks which are more efficiently accomplished with relative strategies , such as transposition or producing harmony that

2535-490: The Marine Band as its head in 1880 and remained as its conductor until 1892. During this period, Sousa led the Marine Band through its development into the country's premier military band. He led "The President's Own" band under five presidents from Rutherford B. Hayes to Benjamin Harrison . Sousa's band played at the inaugural balls of James A. Garfield in 1881 and Benjamin Harrison in 1889 . In July 1892, Sousa requested

2600-735: The Naval Reserve but did not return to active duty. He frequently wore his Navy uniform during performances for the remainder of his life. For his service during the war, Sousa received the World War I Victory Medal and was elected as a Veteran Companion of the Military Order of Foreign Wars . He was also a member of the New York Athletic Club and Post 754 of the American Legion . On December 30, 1879, Sousa married Jane van Middlesworth Bellis (February 22, 1862 – March 11, 1944), who

2665-612: The Society of Artists and Composers. He was also a member of the Salmagundi, Players, Musicians, New York Athletic, Lambs, Army and Navy and the Gridiron clubs of Washington. Sousa wrote over 130 marches, 15 operettas , 5 overtures , 11 suites , 24 dances, 28 fantasies, and countless arrangements of nineteenth-century western European symphonic works. Sousa wrote over 130 marches, published by Harry Coleman of Philadelphia, Carl Fischer Music ,

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2730-489: The adult human brain". However, no adult has ever been documented to have acquired absolute listening ability, because all adults who have been formally tested after AP training have failed to demonstrate "an unqualified level of accuracy... comparable to that of AP possessors". While very few people have the ability to name a pitch with no external reference, pitch memory can be activated by repeated exposure. People who are not skilled singers will often sing popular songs in

2795-472: The boundaries of musical pitch categories vary among human cultures, the recognition of octave relationships is a natural characteristic of the mammalian auditory system. Accordingly, absolute pitch is not the ability to estimate a pitch value from the dimension of pitch-evoking frequency (30–5000 Hz), but to identify a pitch class category within the dimension of pitch class (e.g., C-C ♯ -D ... B-C). An absolute listener's sense of hearing

2860-591: The correct key, and can usually recognize when TV themes have been shifted into the wrong key. Members of the Venda culture in South Africa also sing familiar children's songs in the key in which the songs were learned. This phenomenon is apparently unrelated to musical training. The skill may be associated more closely with vocal production. Violin students learning the Suzuki method are required to memorize each composition in

2925-544: The development of the sousaphone , a large brass instrument similar to the helicon and tuba . Upon the United States joining World War I , Sousa was awarded a wartime commission of lieutenant to lead the Naval Reserve Band in Illinois. He then returned to conduct the Sousa Band until his death in 1932. In the 1920s, Sousa was promoted to the permanent rank of lieutenant commander in the naval reserve. John Philip Sousa

2990-744: The difference is more probably explained by experience. The language that is spoken may be an important factor; many East Asians speak tonal languages such as Mandarin, Cantonese, and Thai, while others (such as those in Japan and certain provinces of Korea) speak pitch-accent languages, and the prevalence of absolute pitch may be partly explained by exposure to pitches together with meaningful musical labels very early in life. Absolute pitch ability has higher prevalence among those with Williams syndrome and those with an autism spectrum disorder , with claims estimating that up to 30% of autistic people have absolute pitch. A non-verbal piano-matching method resulted in

3055-576: The elegant overture Our Flirtations , several musical suites, etc. He frequently added Sullivan opera overtures or other Sullivan pieces to his concerts. Sousa was quoted saying, "My religion lies in my composition." Sousa ranked as one of the all-time great trapshooters and was enshrined in the Trapshooting Hall of Fame. He organized the first national trapshooting organization, a forerunner to today's Amateur Trapshooting Association (ATA). He also wrote numerous articles about trapshooting. He

3120-542: The familiarization of the equal-tempered C-major scale . Most of the absolute listeners that were tested in this respect identified the C-major tones more reliably and, except for B, more quickly than the five "black key" tones, which corresponds to the higher prevalence of these tones in ordinary musical experiences. One study of Dutch non-musicians also demonstrated a bias toward using C-major tones in ordinary speech, especially on syllables related to emphasis. Absolute pitch

3185-757: The general population is not known. A proportion of 1 in 10,000 is widely reported, but not supported by evidence; a 2019 review indicated a prevalence of at least 4% amongst music students. Generally, absolute pitch implies some or all of these abilities, achieved without a reference tone: Absolute pitch is distinct from relative pitch . While the ability to name specific pitches can be used to infer intervals , relative pitch identifies an interval directly by its sound. Absolute pitch may complement relative pitch in musical listening and practice, but it may also influence its development. Adults who possess relative pitch but do not already have absolute pitch can learn "pseudo-absolute pitch" and become able to identify notes in

3250-657: The mandatory retirement age for Navy officers. During the war, Sousa led the Navy Band at the Great Lakes Naval Station near Chicago, and he donated all of his naval salary except a token $ 1 per month to the Sailors' and Marines' Relief Fund. Sousa was discharged from active duty after the end of the war in November 1918 and returned to conducting his own band. In the early 1920s, Sousa was promoted to lieutenant commander in

3315-613: The national honorary band fraternity. In 1932, he was initiated as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia , a national fraternity for men in music, by the fraternity's Alpha Xi chapter at the University of Illinois . The World War II Liberty ship SS  John Philip Sousa was named in Sousa's honor. The Marine Band possesses the ship's bell, using it in performances of the "Liberty Bell March". In 1952, 20th Century Fox honored Sousa in their Technicolor feature film Stars and Stripes Forever with Clifton Webb portraying him. It

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3380-441: The note C. Although it was once thought that it "might be nothing more than a general human capacity whose expression is strongly biased by the level and type of exposure to music that people experience in a given culture", absolute pitch may be influenced by genetic variation, possibly an autosomal dominant genetic trait. Evidence suggests that absolute pitch sense is influenced by cultural exposure to music, especially in

3445-446: The note known as 'A' varied in different local or national musical traditions between what is considered as G sharp and B flat before the standardisation of the late 19th century. While the term absolute pitch , or absolute ear , was in use by the late 19th century by both British and German researchers, its application was not universal; other terms such as musical ear , absolute tone consciousness , or positive pitch referred to

3510-413: The rest of the ensemble to stand out or to compensate for loosening strings during longer performances. Absolute pitch shows a genetic overlap with music-related and non-music-related synesthesia / ideasthesia . They may associate certain notes or keys with different colors, enabling them to tell what any note or key is. In this study, about 20% of people with absolute pitch are also synesthetes. There

3575-410: The role of absolute pitch in speech than the pitch and contour tone languages of East Asia. Speakers of European languages make subconscious use of an absolute pitch memory when speaking. Absolute pitch is the ability to perceive pitch class and to mentally categorize sounds according to perceived pitch class. A pitch class is the set of all pitches that are a whole number of octaves apart. While

3640-400: The same ability. The skill is not exclusively musical. Physically and functionally, the auditory system of an absolute listener evidently does not differ from that of a non-absolute listener. Rather, "it reflects a particular ability to analyze frequency information, presumably involving high-level cortical processing." Absolute pitch is an act of cognition , needing memory of the frequency,

3705-627: Was "way below clinical thresholds". Absolute pitch might be achievable by any human being during a critical period of auditory development, after which period cognitive strategies favor global and relational processing. Proponents of the critical-period theory agree that the presence of absolute pitch ability is dependent on learning, but there is disagreement about whether training causes absolute skills to occur or lack of training causes absolute perception to be overwhelmed and obliterated by relative perception of musical intervals . One or more genetic loci could affect absolute pitch ability,

3770-515: Was a regular competitor representing the Navy in trapshooting competitions, particularly against the Army. Records indicate that Sousa registered more than 35,000 targets during his shooting career. "Let me say that just about the sweetest music to me is when I call, 'pull,' the old gun barks, and the referee in perfect key announces, 'dead'." In Sousa's 1902 novella The Fifth String , a virtuoso violinist makes

3835-528: Was also found to have perfect pitch . During this period, Sousa wrote his first composition, "An Album Leaf", but Esputa dismissed it as "bread and cheese", and the composition was subsequently lost. Sousa's father was a trombonist in the Marine Band, and he enlisted Sousa in the United States Marine Corps as an apprentice at age 13 to keep him from joining a circus band. That same year, Sousa began studying music under George Felix Benkert. Sousa

3900-520: Was born in Washington, D.C. , the third of 10 children of João António de Sousa (John Anthony Sousa) (September 22, 1824 – April 27, 1892), who was born in Spain to Portuguese parents, and his wife Maria Elisabeth Trinkhaus (May 20, 1826 – August 25, 1908), who was German and from Bavaria . Sousa began his music education under the tuition of John Esputa Sr., who taught him solfeggio . However, this

3965-657: Was descended from Adam Bellis who served in the New Jersey troops during the American Revolutionary War . They had three children: John Jr. (April 1, 1881 – May 18, 1937), Jane Priscilla (August 7, 1882 – October 28, 1958), and Helen (January 21, 1887 – October 14, 1975). On July 15, 1881, the "March King" was initiated into Freemasonry by Hiram Lodge No. 10 (Now Hiram-Takoma Lodge No. 10) in Washington, D.C. , where Sousa remained an active member until his death in 1932. Among other Masonic honors, Sousa

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4030-413: Was enlisted under a minority enlistment, meaning that he would not be discharged until his 21st birthday. In 1868, Sousa enlisted in the Marine Corps at age 13 as an apprentice musician (his rank listed as "boy"). Sousa completed his apprenticeship and left the Marine Corps 1875. He then began performing on the violin and joined a theatrical pit orchestra where he learned to conduct. Sousa returned to

4095-592: Was loosely based on Sousa's memoirs Marching Along . In 1987, an act of Congress named "The Stars and Stripes Forever" as the national march of the United States. In 2012, a crater on the planet Mercury was named in Sousa's honor. He was posthumously enshrined in the Hall of Fame for Great Americans in 1976. Sousa was a member of the Sons of the Revolution , Military Order of Foreign Wars , American Legion , Freemasons , and

4160-835: Was named the Honorary Band Leader of the Temple Band of Almas Shriners, the DC-based Chapter of Shriners International . A number of his compositions were for the organization, including the "Nobles of the Mystic Shrine" March . In his later years, Sousa lived in Sands Point, New York . On March 6, 1932, he died of heart failure at age 77 in his room at the Abraham Lincoln Hotel in Reading, Pennsylvania . Sousa had conducted

4225-404: Was short-lived due to the teacher's frequent bad temper. Sousa's real music education began in 1861 or 1862 as a pupil of John Esputa Jr., the son of his previous teacher under whom Sousa studied violin, piano, flute, several brass instruments, and singing. Esputa shared his father's bad temper, and the relationship between teacher and pupil was often strained, but Sousa progressed very rapidly and

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