60-504: The Elka Rhapsody is a fully polyphonic multi-orchestral synthesizer with either a 49-key or 61-key keyboard, depending on the model. It was particularly popular with Berlin School electronic musicians during the 1970s. This was the earlier, smaller version with 49-key keyboard. It had two sounds, violoncello and strings which could also be combined to produce a fuller sound. There were two other controls; volume and sustain. It also had
120-422: A late tenth-century gradual and a troper of a possibly later date. This hypothesis considers both the retrospective characteristics of Bodley 775 and its status as a later manuscript than Corpus 473. Bodley 775 was not modeled after Corpus 473. Each manuscript contains additional chants copied by scribes throughout the eleventh century. Although the core of each manuscript reflects a connection to Northern France,
180-434: A later stage of compilation than Corpus 473. This corroborates the claim that Bodley 775 is based on an earlier gradual but a more recent troper, possible one that dates after Corpus 473. Between the two manuscripts, 37 tropes are almost certainly English in origin, while another 48 are of probable English origin. Some of these tropes are also found in other English or North French sources, but many are unique to Winchester. It
240-455: A male falsetto singer. Some of these songs are linked to the cult of the grapevine and many date back to the eighth century. The songs traditionally pervaded all areas of everyday life, ranging from work in the fields (the Naduri, which incorporates the sounds of physical effort into the music) to songs to curing of illnesses and to Christmas Carols (Alilo). Byzantine liturgical hymns also incorporated
300-480: A master tuning control on the rear panel of the instrument. It is a monotimbral instrument with a single ¼" jack on the rear for output, and a single 5-pin DIN socket for a pedal. This is the larger instrument with a 61-key keyboard. It had four sounds, violoncello , strings , piano and clavichord which could also be switched in and out, similar to the 490. Each voice had separate volume and decay time sliders mounted on
360-478: A musical texture with just one voice ( monophony ) or a texture with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords ( homophony ). Within the context of the Western musical tradition, the term polyphony is usually used to refer to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance . Baroque forms such as fugue , which might be called polyphonic, are usually described instead as contrapuntal . Also, as opposed to
420-521: A wide, if uneven, distribution among the peoples of the world. Most polyphonic regions of the world are in sub-Saharan Africa , Europe and Oceania. It is believed that the origins of polyphony in traditional music vastly predate the emergence of polyphony in European professional music. Currently there are two contradictory approaches to the problem of the origins of vocal polyphony: the Cultural Model, and
480-456: Is a later eleventh-century addition and is misbound, with the original sequence of leaves being 1-3, 5, 6, 4, 7. The remainder of the book is organized in quires of 8, with half sheets appearing in quires 3, 12, 14, 16, 20 and 23. It is written in black and brown ink with red rubrics and colored initials. Some proses were subsequently erased and cannot be recovered. Although Wulfstan the Cantor
540-403: Is a previously composed chant; the vox organalis is a newly composed part in counterpoint with the chant. The organal voices seem to follow a general contour below the principal voices, beginning with parallel movement in fourths, then oblique movement (including the use of holding tones), then meeting in unison at points of ocursus . The gatherings of Corpus 473 dedicated to organa contain only
600-552: Is also found in North Macedonia and Bulgaria . Albanian polyphonic singing can be divided into two major stylistic groups as performed by the Tosks and Labs of southern Albania. The drone is performed in two ways: among the Tosks, it is always continuous and sung on the syllable 'e', using staggered breathing; while among the Labs, the drone is sometimes sung as a rhythmic tone, performed to
660-607: Is best understood as the repertory of music contained in the two manuscripts. Both manuscripts contain a variety of liturgical genres, including Proper and Ordinary chants for both the Mass and the Divine Office . Many of the chants can also be found in other English and Northern French tropers, graduals , and antiphoners . However, some chants are unique to Winchester, including those for local saints such as St. Æthelwold and St. Swithun , who were influential Bishops of Winchester in
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#1732883923888720-584: Is common in Svaneti; polyphonic dialogue over a bass background, prevalent in the Kakheti region in Eastern Georgia; and contrasted polyphony with three partially improvised sung parts, characteristic of western Georgia. The Chakrulo song, which is sung at ceremonies and festivals and belongs to the first category, is distinguished by its use of metaphor and its yodel, the krimanchuli and a "cockerel’s crow", performed by
780-576: Is described as polyphonic due to Balkan musicians using a literal translation of the Greek polyphōnos ('many voices'). In terms of Western classical music, it is not strictly polyphonic, due to the drone parts having no melodic role, and can better be described as multipart . The polyphonic singing tradition of Epirus is a form of traditional folk polyphony practiced among Aromanians , Albanians, Greeks, and ethnic Macedonians in southern Albania and northwestern Greece. This type of folk vocal tradition
840-503: Is generally considered to be the oldest extant example of notated polyphony for chant performance, although the notation does not indicate precise pitch levels or durations. However, a two-part antiphon to Saint Boniface recently discovered in the British Library , is thought to have originated in a monastery in north-west Germany and has been dated to the early tenth century. European polyphony rose out of melismatic organum ,
900-459: Is often difficult to determine the origin of a specific chant and is subject to interpretation. Corpus 473 contains 174 organal parts of two-part organum pieces, the largest surviving collection of eleventh century polyphony. The polyphony consists of two voices, a vox principalis (Latin plural, voces principales ; English, principal voice[s]) and a vox organalis (Latin plural, voces organales ; English, organal voice[s]). The vox principalis
960-665: Is partly a troper (i.e. a book of tropes ). It contains Gregorian chant and tropes, which are musical or textual (or both) expansions of Gregorian chant. Corpus 473 and Bodley 775 contain several introit tropes for feasts of St. Swithun, a ninth century Bishop of Winchester. Some of the introit tropes for St. Swithun are unique to this repertory. St. Swithun is also represented in Offertory and Communion tropes. Both manuscripts contain tropes for various Sanctorale and Temporale feasts, including Christmas , Advent , Epiphany , Pentecost , All Saints , St. Stephen , St. Gregory , and
1020-420: Is sung in a nasal temperament. Additionally, many paghjella songs contain a picardy third . After paghjella's revival in the 1970s, it mutated. In the 1980s it had moved away from some of its more traditional features as it became much more heavily produced and tailored towards western tastes. There were now four singers, significantly less melisma, it was much more structured, and it exemplified more homophony. To
1080-516: The Innocents . Other local saints, like St. Æthelwold and St. Justus (Iustus), are also represented. The two manuscripts contain nearly the same proper tropes with some significant exceptions. Bodley 775 contains fewer Communion and Offertory tropes than Corpus 473. Generally, trope repertories across Europe shrank during the eleventh century, meaning the lower number of tropes in Bodley 775 could reflect
1140-461: The Mass and Divine Office , proses, and sequences. In Corpus 473, different genres are grouped into different gatherings. Within each genre, the chants are organized according to the liturgical calendar . The organization of Bodley 775 is not nearly as systematic. Although pieces of similar genres are generally grouped together, each genre is not placed in a distinct fascicle, and chants are sometimes mistakenly placed out of liturgical order or under
1200-677: The Republic of Georgia is arguably the oldest polyphony in the Christian world. Georgian polyphony is traditionally sung in three parts with strong dissonances, parallel fifths, and a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths. Georgian polyphonic singing has been proclaimed by UNESCO an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Popular singing has a highly valued place in Georgian culture. There are three types of polyphony in Georgia: complex polyphony, which
1260-647: The Wagogo use counterpoint. The music of African Pygmies (e.g. that of the Aka people ) is typically ostinato and contrapuntal, featuring yodeling . Other Central African peoples tend to sing with parallel lines rather than counterpoint. In Burundi, rural women greet each other with akazehe , a two-part interlocking vocal rhythm. The singing of the San people , like that of the pygmies, features melodic repetition, yodeling, and counterpoint. The singing of neighboring Bantu peoples , like
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#17328839238881320-702: The Zulu , is more typically parallel. The peoples of tropical West Africa traditionally use parallel harmonies rather than counterpoint. Winchester Troper The Winchester Troper refers to two eleventh-century manuscripts of liturgical plainchant and two-voice polyphony copied and used in the Old Minster at Winchester Cathedral in Hampshire , England. The manuscripts are now held at Cambridge, Corpus Christi College 473 (Corpus 473) and Oxford, Bodleian Library Bodley 775 (Bodley 775) . The term "Winchester Troper"
1380-426: The mass attributable to one composer is Guillaume de Machaut 's Messe de Nostre Dame , dated to 1364, during the pontificate of Pope Urban V . The Second Vatican Council said Gregorian chant should be the focus of liturgical services, without excluding other forms of sacred music, including polyphony. English Protestant west gallery music included polyphonic multi-melodic harmony, including fuguing tunes , by
1440-400: The species terminology of counterpoint, polyphony was generally either "pitch-against-pitch" / "point-against-point" or "sustained-pitch" in one part with melismas of varying lengths in another. In all cases the conception was probably what Margaret Bent (1999) calls "dyadic counterpoint", with each part being written generally against one other part, with all parts modified if needed in
1500-441: The voces organales . Singers would have performed the principal voice from a different gathering, another manuscript, or, more likely, from memory. Among the genres that receive organal treatment are troped and untroped Mass Ordinary chants, tracts , sequences, Mass Proper tropes, Alleluias, and Office Responsories . Because the notation consists of adiestematic neumes , which indicate the melodic contour but not precise pitches,
1560-578: The Battle Conference 1993 . Rochester, NY: Boydell Press. Hiley, David (1995). “The Repertory of Sequences at Winchester.” In Boone, Graeme M. (ed). Essays on Medieval Music on Honor of David G. Hughes. In Boone, Greame M. (ed.). Isham Library Papers 4. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hiley, David (1998). “The English Benedictine Version of the Historia Sancti Gregorii and the Date of
1620-478: The Evolutionary Model. According to the Cultural Model, the origins of polyphony are connected to the development of human musical culture; polyphony came as the natural development of the primordial monophonic singing; therefore polyphonic traditions are bound to gradually replace monophonic traditions. According to the Evolutionary Model, the origins of polyphonic singing are much deeper, and are connected to
1680-414: The Georgian polyphonic tradition to such an extent that they became a significant expression of it. Chechen and Ingush traditional music can be defined by their tradition of vocal polyphony. Chechen and Ingush polyphony is based on a drone and is mostly three-part, unlike most other north Caucasian traditions' two-part polyphony. The middle part carries the main melody accompanied by a double drone, holding
1740-576: The Medieval English Liturgy: Plainsong and Mediaeval Music Society Centennial Essays . Oxford: Clarendon Press. Rankin, Susan (2007). The Winchester Troper: Facsimile Edition and Introduction . London: Stainer and Bell. ISBN 0-85249-894-2 . Rankin, Susan (2008). “Music for a Late Anglo-Saxon Benedictine Abbey: The Winchester Troper.” British Academy Review , no. 11. Rankin, Susan (2015). "Organa dulcisona docto modulamine compta: Rhetoric and Musical Composition in
1800-532: The United States and even in places such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Poland, and Australia, among others. Polyphonic singing is traditional folk singing of this part of southern Europe. It is also called ancient , archaic or old-style singing. Incipient polyphony (previously primitive polyphony) includes antiphony and call and response , drones , and parallel intervals . Balkan drone music
1860-793: The Winchester Sequence Repertory of ca. 1000". In Dobszay, László; Halász, Péter; Mezei, János; Prószéky, Gábor (eds.). Cantus Planus: Papers Read at the Third Meeting, Tihany, Hungary 19-24 September 1988 . Budapest: Hungarian Academy of Sciences Institute for Musicology. Hiley, David (1994). "Changes in English Chant Repertories in the Eleventh Century as Reflected in the Winchester Sequences". In Chibnall, Marjorie (ed.). Anglo-Norman Studies XVI. Proceeding of
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1920-519: The Winchester Troper; increasing Norman influence did not impact the Alleluia series. Thus, while the core of each manuscript dates to Anglo-Saxon England, they also contain some post-Conquest music. Corpus 473 contains 199 folios of parchment with dimensions of 140/145 x 90/93 mm. The final folio dates to the sixteenth century and is not original to the manuscript. The complete manuscript
1980-676: The Xth and XIth centuries with other documents illustrating the history of tropes in England and France . London: Henry Bradshaw Society. Handschin, J. (January 1936; April 1936). "The Two Winchester Tropers". Journal of Theological Studies . 37 . nos. 145-146. Hiley, David; Rankin, Susan, eds. (1993). Music in the Medieval English Liturgy . Plainsong & Mediaeval Music Society Centennial Essays. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-316125-7 . Hiley, David (1990). "Editing
2040-491: The audibility of the words. Instruments, as well as certain modes, were actually forbidden in the church because of their association with secular music and pagan rites. After banishing polyphony from the Liturgy in 1322, Pope John XXII warned against the unbecoming elements of this musical innovation in his 1324 bull Docta Sanctorum Patrum . In contrast Pope Clement VI indulged in it. The oldest extant polyphonic setting of
2100-711: The earlier stages of human evolution; polyphony was an important part of a defence system of the hominids, and traditions of polyphony are gradually disappearing all over the world. Although the exact origins of polyphony in the Western church traditions are unknown, the treatises Musica enchiriadis and Scolica enchiriadis , both dating from c . 900, are usually considered the oldest extant written examples of polyphony. These treatises provided examples of two-voice note-against-note embellishments of chants using parallel octaves, fifths, and fourths. Rather than being fixed works, they indicated ways of improvising polyphony during performance. The Winchester Troper , from c . 1000,
2160-502: The earliest harmonization of the chant. During the 12th century, composers such as Léonin and Pérotin developed the organum that had been introduced centuries earlier, and also added a third and fourth voice to the now homophonic chant. In the 13th century, the chant-based tenor was becoming altered, fragmented, and hidden beneath secular tunes, obscuring the sacred texts as composers continued to develop polyphonic techniques. The lyrics of love poems might be sung above sacred texts in
2220-446: The end. This point-against-point conception is opposed to "successive composition", where voices were written in an order with each new voice fitting into the whole so far constructed, which was previously assumed. The term polyphony is also sometimes used more broadly, to describe any musical texture that is not monophonic. Such a perspective considers homophony as a sub-type of polyphony. Traditional (non-professional) polyphony has
2280-591: The form of a trope , or the sacred text might be placed within a familiar secular melody. The oldest surviving piece of six-part music is the English rota Sumer is icumen in ( c. 1240 ). European polyphony rose prior to, and during the period of the Western Schism . Avignon , the seat of popes and then antipopes , was a vigorous center of secular music-making, much of which influenced sacred polyphony. The notion of secular and sacred music merging in
2340-683: The form of bamboo panpipe ensembles. Europeans were surprised to find drone-based and dissonant polyphonic singing in Polynesia. Polynesian traditions were then influenced by Western choral church music, which brought counterpoint into Polynesian musical practice. Numerous Sub-Saharan African music traditions host polyphonic singing, typically moving in parallel motion . While the Maasai people traditionally sing with drone polyphony, other East African groups use more elaborate techniques. The Dorze people , for example, sing with as many as six parts, and
2400-452: The incorrect rubric. Unlike Corpus 473, Bodley 775 separates the tropes for feasts of the Temporale and Sactorale . Corpus 473 contains only half of an Alleluia cycle; it is possible that a gathering containing the second half of the cycle has been lost. The two tables below list the general contents of the two manuscripts. However, because later additions were often copied wherever there
2460-400: The interval of a fifth around the melody. Intervals and chords are often dissonances (sevenths, seconds, fourths), and traditional Chechen and Ingush songs use sharper dissonances than other North Caucasian traditions. The specific cadence of a final, dissonant three-part chord, consisting of fourth and the second on top (c-f-g), is almost unique. (Only in western Georgia do a few songs finish on
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2520-411: The iso-polyphonic singing and is related to the ison of Byzantine church music, where the drone group accompanies the song. The French island of Corsica has a unique style of music called Paghjella that is known for its polyphony. Traditionally, Paghjella contains a staggered entrance and continues with the three singers carrying independent melodies. This music tends to contain much melisma and
2580-401: The mid-18th century. This tradition passed with emigrants to North America, where it was proliferated in tunebooks, including shape-note books like The Southern Harmony and The Sacred Harp . While this style of singing has largely disappeared from British and North American sacred music, it survived in the rural Southern United States , until it again began to grow a following throughout
2640-401: The name, the manuscripts are not identical, not part of a set (such as Volume 1 and Volume 2), and contain liturgical genres other than tropes . The term "Winchester Troper" can refer to either manuscript or to the repertory of the two as a collective. The dating of the two manuscripts has been subject of debate. The core repertory of Corpus 473 was likely copied in the 1020s-1030s. Bodley 775
2700-626: The organal voice was precisely bound to the rules of theory. Arlt, Wulf (1993). "Stylistic Layers in Eleventh-Century Polyphony: How Can Continental Sources Contribute to Our Understanding of the Winchester Organa?". In Rankin, Susan; Hiley, David (eds.). Music in the Medieval English Liturgy: Plainsong & Mediaeval Music Society Centennial Essays . Oxford: Clarendon Press. Frere, Walter Howard (1894). The Winchester troper from MSS. of
2760-456: The organal voice. Significantly, the neume shapes and contour of the organal voice sometimes break from the theory. Because Corpus 473 contains multiple organal harmonies to the same melodic gesture, the monks at Winchester exercised a certain degree of compositional freedom when writing organa. Rankin suggests that the composer(s) of organa were engaged in a creative and aesthetic practice, a different conclusion from Holschneider's assessment that
2820-530: The organal voices were long considered to be indecipherable. However, Andreas Holschneider and, more recently, Susan Rankin have published reconstructions of some of the organa. To reconstruct the organa, Rankin matches the organal voice with a chant melody. To determine the best match, she examines the notation of the organal voice against various chant melodies that use the same text. Theoretical rules found in treatises, such as Musica enchiriadis and Guido of Arezzo 's Micrologus , are necessary to reconstruct
2880-461: The papal court also offended some medieval ears. It gave church music more of a jocular performance quality supplanting the solemnity of worship they were accustomed to. The use of and attitude toward polyphony varied widely in the Avignon court from the beginning to the end of its religious importance in the fourteenth century. Harmony was considered frivolous, impious, lascivious, and an obstruction to
2940-553: The people of Corsica, the polyphony of paghjella represented freedom; it had been a source of cultural pride in Corsica and many felt that this movement away from the polyphonic style meant a movement away from paghjella's cultural ties. This resulted in a transition in the 1990s. Paghjella again had a strong polyphonic style and a less structured meter. Cantu a tenore is a traditional style of polyphonic singing in Sardinia . Polyphony in
3000-463: The previous centuries. Corpus 473 contains the most significant and largest surviving collection of eleventh-century organum (i.e. polyphony ). This polyphonic repertoire is unique to that manuscript (Bodley 775 contains no polyphony). In the late nineteenth century, Walter Frere and the Solesmes monks were the first to refer to these manuscripts as the "Winchester Troper." Despite the implications of
3060-513: The same dissonant c-f-g chord.) Parts of Oceania maintain rich polyphonic traditions. The peoples of New Guinea Highlands including the Moni , Dani , and Yali use vocal polyphony, as do the people of Manus Island . Many of these styles are drone -based or feature close, secondal harmonies dissonant to western ears. Guadalcanal and the Solomon Islands are host to instrumental polyphony, in
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#17328839238883120-422: The same music for many of the same feasts, but there are some notable differences between the contents and organization of the two manuscripts. Corpus 473 contains the voces organales (Latin: organal voices) to 174 organa , making it the largest extant collection of liturgical polyphony in the eleventh century, while Bodley 775 contains no such organa. Both manuscripts contain both proper and ordinary tropes for
3180-400: The supplementary chants copied by scribes in the latter half of the eleventh century exhibit a very strong Norman influence. In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy , conquered England , strengthening the cultural connection between northern France and England. As a result, chant in England began to reflect this new political reality. This influence is especially strong in the later sequences of
3240-464: The text of the song. It can be differentiated between two-, three- and four-voice polyphony. In Aromanian music , polyphony is common, and polyphonic music follows a set of common rules. The phenomenon of Albanian folk iso-polyphony ( Albanian iso-polyphony ) has been proclaimed by UNESCO a " Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity ". The term iso refers to the drone, which accompanies
3300-423: The top of the instrument. The 610 had a split function, which would allow one sound - for example, bass - to be assigned to the lower half of the keyboard, while the upper section could play a different lead voice. Polyphony Polyphony ( / p ə ˈ l ɪ f ə n i / pə- LIF -ə-nee ) is a type of musical texture consisting of two or more simultaneous lines of independent melody , as opposed to
3360-878: The ‘Winchester Troper’ (Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, 473).” In Dobszay, László (ed.). Cantus Planus: Papers Read at the Seventh Meeting, Sopron, 1995 . Budapest: Hungarian Academy of Sciences Institute for Musicology. Huglo, Michel (1993). Rankin, Susan; Hiley, David (eds.). Music in the Medieval English Liturgy: Plainsong & Mediaeval Music Society Centennial Essays . Oxford: Clarendon Press. Holschneider, Andreas (1968). Die Organa von Winchester : Studien zum ältesten Repertoire polyphoner Musik . Hildesheim: G. Olms. Planchart, Alejandro Enrique (1977). The Repertory of Tropes at Winchester . 2 Vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Rankin, Susan (1993). "Winchester Polyphony: The Early Theory and Practice of Organum". In Rankin, Susan; Hiley, David (eds.). Music in
3420-594: Was available space, not every piece is accounted for in the tables. For instance, in Corpus 473 two proses, copied in the late eleventh century, are located at the end of the early eleventh century Alleluia cycle and are not listed below. 10 Kyries (one is later) 17 Gloria tropes 6 Sanctus tropes 1 Sanctus 6 Agnus dei tropes 11 Kyries 13 Gloria tropes 6 Sanctus tropes 2 Sanctus 6 Agnus dei tropes 4 (late 11th c.) approx. 64 (core repertory, some erased) 14 (late 11th through early 12th c.) The Winchester Troper
3480-458: Was once thought to have a direct role in the copying of these manuscripts (and perhaps even composing the organa of Corpus 473), more recent dating makes this impossible because the manuscripts are now believed to have been copied after Wulfstan's death. The organa were possibly composed by several people at Winchester and represented the best attempts at improvised polyphony that were deemed worthy of memory. Corpus 473 and Bodley 775 share much of
3540-440: Was possibly copied in the 1050s. However, scholars disagree about the dating of the possible exemplars on which Bodley 775 was based. Perhaps Bodley 775 was copied directly from a now lost exemplar dating from the late 970s or 980s. Therefore, the manuscript is retrospective because it reflects practices different than those at the time it was copied. On the other hand, Bodley 775 may have been copied from two preexisting manuscripts:
3600-544: Was rebound and conserved in 2004. It is written mostly in dark brown ink with colored capitals; the handwriting is Caroline minuscule . Corpus 473 may have been used by the succentor or cantor of the Old Minster and Bodley 775 by its cantor . Bodley 775 contains 191 folios of parchment of the size 273 x 167 mm. The manuscript retains its eleventh-century binding, consisting of two quarter-cut oak boards covered in whittawed skin. The first quire (ff. 1-7 , col. 1 seven)
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