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75-413: A word may be spoken individually in what is called the citation form . This corresponds to the pronunciation given in a dictionary. However, when words are spoken in context, it often happens that some sounds that belong to the citation form are omitted. Elision is not an all-or-nothing process: elision is more likely to occur in some styles of speaking and less likely in others. Many writers have described

150-413: A /kʰ/ or /k/ precedes /ɛ, i, ɪ, ai/ ). Another special case of elision is the loss of /θ/ from the start of þetta ("this", "that"), which is sometimes pronounced etta ( hvað er þetta (what is this?) -> hvaretta? ). The pronunciation of the full word tends to lay emphasis on it ("What is this ?") while the elision of the word leads to its deemphasis (" What is this?"). The loss of

225-404: A noun is the singular (and non-possessive) form: mouse rather than mice . For multiword lexemes that contain possessive adjectives or reflexive pronouns , the citation form uses a form of the indefinite pronoun one : do one's best , perjure oneself . In European languages with grammatical gender , the citation form of regular adjectives and nouns is usually the masculine singular. If

300-448: A complete word such as " paṛh" while shortening the rest, depending on the preference of the person, their dialect, or their accent. Elision is a major feature of Welsh , found commonly in verb forms, such as in the following examples: Elision of word-final -f is almost always found in spoken Welsh to the point where the words are spelt with optional final -f in words like gorsa(f), pentre(f) and has been eradicated from

375-462: A consonant stem). Elision of unstressed vowels (usually / ə / ) is common in the French language and, in some cases, must be indicated orthographically with an apostrophe . Elision of vowel and consonant sounds was also an important phenomenon in the phonological evolution of French. For example, s following a vowel and preceding another consonant regularly elided, with compensatory lengthening of

450-409: A dead bird is quickly revealed; the standard eulogy would have proceeded along the standard Roman lines: genealogy (skipped in the poem, as pets – and slaves, that also could have been characterized as deliciae – were considered to be creations of their masters), deeds (also none), and character. The latter includes good disposition and loyalty, wording typical for epitaphs. At the end poet refers to

525-459: A deletion rule (for /r/-deletion in English RP) is provided by Giegerich. If we start with the premise that the underlying form of the word "hear" has a final /r/ and has the phonological form /hɪər/, we need to be able to explain how /r/ is deleted at the end of "hear" but is not deleted in the derived word "hearing". The difference is between word-final /r/ in "hear", where the /r/ would form part of

600-478: A dictionary, the lemma "go" represents the inflected forms "go", "goes", "going", "went", and "gone". The relationship between an inflected form and its lemma is usually denoted by an angle bracket, e.g., "went" < "go". Of course, the disadvantage of such simplifications is the inability to look up a declined or conjugated form of the word, but some dictionaries, like Webster's Dictionary , list "went". Multilingual dictionaries vary in how they deal with this issue:

675-482: A pool room and play cards or shoot pool." Lennie knelt and looked over the fire at the angry George. And Lennie's face was drawn in with terror. " An' whatta I got," George went on furiously. "I got you! You can't keep a job and you lose me ever' job I get. Jus' keep me shovin' all over the country all the time." Other examples, such as him and going to shown in the table above, are generally used only in fast or informal speech. They are still generally written as

750-499: A sentence because of initial mutations . The noun cainteoir , the lemma for the noun meaning "speaker", has a variety of forms: chainteoir , gcainteoir , cainteora , chainteora , cainteoirí , chainteoirí and gcainteoirí . Some phrases are cited in a sort of lemma: Carthago delenda est (literally, "Carthage must be destroyed") is a common way of citing Cato , but what he said was nearer to censeo Carthaginem esse delendam ("I hold Carthage to be in need of destruction"). In

825-542: A shortened pronunciation. This may be a historical case (for example, French " ce est " has become " c'est " /sɛ/ and it would now be incorrect to say " ce est " /sə ɛ/) or one that is still optional (in English, a speaker may say "that is" /ðæt ɪz/ or "that's" /ðæts/). Contractions of both sorts are natural forms of the language used by native speakers and are often colloquial but not considered substandard. English contractions are usually vowel-less weak form words . In some cases

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900-469: A study of elision in Latin poetry, J. Soubiran argues that "elision" would better be called " synaloepha ", and the process understood as a merging of syllables, in most cases, rather than the loss of one. Dropping sounds in connected speech by native speakers is very common in this language from Kerala , southern India . For example, entha becomes ntha and ippol becomes ippo . The change of Latin into

975-511: A translation that keeps the euphemistic interpretation. Ingleheart states that the sexual interpretation of passer is "certainly not impossible" (suggesting an English equivalent, " pecker "), and points, in addition to the position taken by Martial, to similar reading of the Meleager 's epigram on a death of a hare and Catullus 2 imitation of Meleager. Hooper states that not only the sparrows were associated with general salaciousness by Pliny

1050-473: A vowel before a word starting in a vowel is frequent in poetry, where the metre sometimes requires it. For example, the opening line of Catullus 3 is Lugete, O Veneres Cupidinesque, but would be read as Lugeto Veneres Cupidinesque (audio). There are many examples of poetic contraction in English verse of past centuries marked by spelling and punctuation. Frequently found examples are over > o'er and ever > e'er. Multiple examples can be seen in lines such as

1125-484: A word within the contraction (e.g. I am going! ) In non-rhotic accents of English, /r/ is dropped unless it's followed by a vowel, making cheetah and cheater completely homophonous. In non-rhotic accents spoken outside of North America, many instances of / ɑː / correspond to / ɑːr / in North American English as / æ / and / ɒ / are used instead of / ɑː / . The consonant in

1200-406: Is an area of diachronic linguistics . Such elisions may originally have been optional but have over time become obligatory (or mandatory). An example of historical elision in French that began at the phrasal level and became lexicalized is preposition de > d' in aujourd'hui "today", now felt by native speakers to be one word, but deriving from au jour de hui , literally "at

1275-501: Is called strouthos ". Thomas stresses that it is unlikely that Catullus was unaware of the metaphorical meaning of a sparrow and points out to the Meleager's poem about a dead hare, where the girl suggestively says, "'Do you see ... that I've stirred up the hare for others." Vergados and O'Bryhim mark the large erotic vocabulary in Catullus 2 and 3 and suggest a "middle" way: the sparrow

1350-429: Is chosen over to break , breaks , broke , breaking , and broken ); for defective verbs with no infinitive the present tense is used (for example, must has only one form while shall has no infinitive, and both lemmas are their lexemes' present tense forms). For Latin , Ancient Greek , Modern Greek , and Bulgarian , the first person singular present tense is traditionally used, but some modern dictionaries use

1425-497: Is considered to be one of the most famous of Latin poems. This poem, together with Catullus' other poems, survived from antiquity in a single manuscript discovered c.  1300 in Verona , from which three copies survive. Fourteen centuries of copying from copies left scholars in doubt as to the poem's original wording in a few places, although centuries of scholarship have led to a consensus critical version. Research on Catullus

1500-489: Is generally thought that elision in Latin poetry came from ordinary Latin pronunciation. However, at some points in speech where elision was standard in poetry, such as at the end of sentences, there was no elision in prose. Around 30 B.C., there was a sharp decline in the amount of elision. Later revived to a varying degree during the Silver Age, it then declined again. Other examples of elision in Latin literature include: In

1575-403: Is indeed the bird, but it was used by its mistress for sexual acts. Genovese offers interpretations of a passer as a love charm or a symbol of a love rival, Thomas disagrees, but finds these ideas "plausible". Green analyses the natural behavior of a sparrow and the attitude of Romans towards this bird and suggests that the poem eulogizes either a common house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) or

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1650-546: Is naughtier than Catullus's sparrow"). Hooper, naturally, sees in the latter (although not necessarily in Ovid's writing) a confirmation of the sexual symbolism of the sparrow. Birds were common love-gifts in the Classical world, and several scholars have speculated that the narrator gave it to the woman; this might explain the poet's identification with the sparrow and his fond lament for the bird in Catullus 3. A key question concerns

1725-419: Is not , I am ) even if they were pronounced as a contraction, but now they are always written as a contraction so long as they are spoken that way. However, they are by no means mandatory and a speaker or writer may choose to keep the words distinct rather than contract them either as a stylistic choice, when using formal register, to make meaning clearer to children or non-native English speakers, or to emphasize

1800-524: Is not necessarily indicated in writing, but often is in hymn music . It can appear as a breve below or an underscore between the adjacent words, e.g. "por-que ̮en-ton-ces" or "por-que_en-ton-ces". A frequent informal use is the elision of d in the past participle suffix -ado , pronouncing cansado as cansao . The elision of d in -ido is considered even more informal, but both elisions common in Andalusian Spanish . Thus,

1875-498: Is pronounced aró ; muintir is pronounced muitir . Elision is extremely common in the pronunciation of the Japanese language . In general, a high vowel ( /i/ or /u/ ) that appears in a low-pitched syllable between two voiceless consonants is devoiced and often deleted outright. However, unlike French or English, Japanese does not often show elision in writing. The process is purely phonetic and varies considerably depending on

1950-521: Is pronounced /ado/ in citation form but the /d/ is omitted in normal speech, giving "cansao". More careful description will show that the Spanish phoneme /d/ is usually pronounced as a voiced dental fricative [ð] when it occurs between vowels. In casual speech it is frequently weakened to a voiced dental approximant [ð̞]. The most extreme possibility is complete elision resulting in a diphthong with no observable consonantal tongue gesture. In this view, elision

2025-459: Is seen as overly fussy or old-fashioned. Some nonstandard dialects , such as Satsuma-ben , are known for their extensive elision. It is common for successive o sounds to be reduced to a single o sound, as is frequently encountered when the particle を (wo/o) is followed by the beautifying or honorific お (o). Latin poetry featured frequent elision, with syllables being dropped to fit the meter or for euphony . Words ending in vowels would elide with

2100-477: Is spoken only when a person is sounding the sentence out word by word. Another noteworthy and extremely common example along this line includes the phrase er það ekki? ("really?") which is pronounced as erþakki . A common example of internal consonant loss in Icelandic is gerðu svo vel ("here you go", "please"), pronounced gjersovel (the hidden j sound is unrelated to the elision and occurs when

2175-416: Is the lemma under which a set of related dictionary or encyclopaedia entries appears. The headword is used to locate the entry, and dictates its alphabetical position. Depending on the size and nature of the dictionary or encyclopedia, the entry may include alternative meanings of the word, its etymology , pronunciation and inflections , related lemmas such as compound words or phrases that contain

2250-456: Is the final stage in lenition or consonant weakening, the last phase of a cline or continuum describable as d > ð > ð̞ > ∅. Whether the elision is of vowel or consonant, if it is consistent through time, the form with elision may come to be accepted as the norm: tabula > tabla as in Spanish, mutare > muer ("change, molt") in French, luna > lua ("moon") in Portuguese. It

2325-400: Is the part of the word that never changes even when morphologically inflected; a lemma is the least marked form of the word. In linguistic analysis, the stem is defined more generally as a form without any of its possible inflectional morphemes (but including derivational morphemes and may contain multiple roots). When phonology is taken into account, the definition of the unchangeable part of

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2400-449: Is translated as "lap" rather than "bosom". Other scholars, however, have rejected this suggestion. Pomeroy suggests that the clearest arguments "for" belong to Giangrande and "against" – to Jocelyn, Thomas mentions also opposition from Adams, while Vergados and O'Bryhim highlight a collection of papers in a book by Gaisser. This reading of Catullus 3 suggests a description of the end of an amorous affair, while Catullus 2 provides

2475-408: Is unless the writer intends to show the dialect or speech patterns of the speaker. The third type of elision is in common contractions, such as can't , isn't , or I'm . The apostrophes represent the sounds that are removed and are not spoken but help the reader to understand that it is a contraction and not a word of its own. These contractions used to be written out when transcribed (i.e. cannot ,

2550-412: Is usual to explain elision and related connected-speech phenomena in terms of the principle of least effort or "economy of effort". This concept has been stated as "If a word or expression remains perfectly intelligible without a certain sound, people tend to omit that sound." There are various ways in which the present form of a language may reflect elisions that have taken place in the past. This topic

2625-513: The /θ/ in þetta is similar to how /ð/ can be lost in "that" and "this" when asking a question and speaking swiftly in English. Elision is found in the Ulster dialect of Irish, particularly in final position. Iontach , for example, while pronounced [ˈiːntəx] in the Conamara dialect, is pronounced [ˈintə] in Ulster. n is also elided when it begins intervocalic consonant clusters. Anró

2700-488: The Hades and addresses the deceased in the second person, as was traditional for Roman laudatio funebris . The traditional reading of the poem (and Catullus 2) is thus straightforward: the poet borrows from the literary tradition of using either a real (or a fictional) connection between a lover and her pet, so he can inject himself into the story as an observer and describe his own relationship with Lesbia. Pomeroy suggests that

2775-524: The Langenscheidt dictionary of German does not list ging (< gehen ), but the Cassell does. Lemmas or word stems are used often in corpus linguistics for determining word frequency. In that usage, the specific definition of "lemma" is flexible depending on the task it is being used for. A word may have different pronunciations , depending on its phonetic environment (the neighbouring sounds) or on

2850-494: The Latin alphabet , such as English, the omitted letters in a contraction are replaced by an apostrophe (e.g., isn't for is not ). Written Greek marks elisions in the same way. Elision is frequently found in verse. It is sometimes explicitly marked in the spelling, and in other cases has to be inferred from knowledge of the metre. Elisions occurred regularly in Latin, but were not written, except in inscriptions and comedy. Elision of

2925-481: The Romance languages included a significant amount of elision, especially syncope (loss of medial vowels). Spanish has these examples: In addition, speakers often employ crasis or elision between two words to avoid a hiatus caused by vowels: the choice of which to use depends upon whether or not the vowels are identical. This is referred to as enlace or synalepha , and is especially common in poetry and songs. It

3000-399: The lemma for a given lexeme is called lemmatisation . The lemma can be viewed as the chief of the principal parts , although lemmatisation is at least partly arbitrary. The form of a word that is chosen to serve as the lemma is usually the least marked form, but there are several exceptions such as the use of the infinitive for verbs in some languages. For English, the citation form of

3075-405: The partitive case ending -ta elides when it is surrounded by two short vowels except when the first of the two vowels involved is paragoge (added to the stem). Otherwise, it stays. For example, katto+ta → kattoa , ranta+ta → rantaa , but työ+tä → työtä (not a short vowel), mies+ta → miestä (consonant stem), jousi+ta → jousta (paragogic i on

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3150-472: The Andalusian quejío for quejido ("lament") has entered Standard Spanish as a term for a special feature of Flamenco singing. Similar distinctions are made with the words bailaor(a) and cantaor(a) as contracted versions of the literal translations for dancer and singer exclusively used for Flamenco, compared to the bailarín and cantante of standard Spanish. The perceived vulgarity of

3225-551: The Elder (in his Natural history ) and Sextus Pompeius Festus , while in Egyptian hieroglyphics an image of the bird denoted "little, evil", but the bird in lines 8–10 of the poem (and in the beginning of Catullus 2) behaves in a very un-sparrow-like way. Festus, in particular, points to mimes that "call the lewd phallus strutheum , evidently from the salaciousness of the sparrow, which in Greek

3300-456: The Italian sparrow ( Passer italiae ). This poem along with the preceding Catullus 2 inspired a genre of poems about lovers' pets. One classical example include Ovid 's elegy on the death of his mistress Corinna's parrot ( Amores 2.6.). Another is Martial 's epigram (Book I number CIX) on a lap dog, which refers to Catullus 2 specifically ("Issa est passere nequior Catulli", "Issa [the dog]

3375-668: The Urdu script (Nastaleeq), it is often seen in Roman Urdu (Latin alphabet) as the latter is more similar to vernacular Urdu. Most elisions occur by removing a vowel or the consonant /h/ or a combination of the two. Some widely-used examples are: (The difference between the elision May and the original word Main is the lack of nasalization at the end in the former.) In sentences, they may appear as: Kya tum paṛ ray o? ("Are you studying?") instead of " Kya tum paṛh rahay ho?" Variations are also common where some individuals may prefer to pronounce

3450-461: The above cases, the e represents a schwa . Elision ( brottfall ) is common in Icelandic . There are a variety of rules for its occurrence, but the most notable is the loss of trailing consonants in common particles as well as the merger of similar vowel sounds. For example, the ubiquitous ég er að (verb) structure ("I am verb-ing") becomes transformed to éra (verb); the full particles

3525-508: The contracted form is not a simple matter of elision: for example, "that's" as a contraction is made not only by the elision of the /ɪ/ of "is" but also by the change of final consonant from /z/ to /s/; "won't" for "will not" requires not only the elision of the /ɒ/ of "not" but also the vowel change /ɪ/ → /oʊ/ and in English RP "can't" and "shan't" change vowel from /æ/ of "can" and "shall" to /ɑː/ in /kɑːnt/, /ʃɑːnt/. In some languages employing

3600-461: The day of today" and meaning "nowadays", although hui is no longer recognized as meaningful in French. In English, the word "cupboard" would originally have contained /p/ between /ʌ/ and /b/, but the /p/ is believed to have disappeared from the pronunciation of the word about the fifteenth century. In many languages there is a process similar but not identical to elision, called contraction , where common words that occur frequently together form

3675-429: The degree of stress in a sentence. An example of the latter is the weak and strong forms of certain English function words like some and but (pronounced /sʌm/ , /bʌt/ when stressed but /s(ə)m/ , /bət/ when unstressed). Dictionaries usually give the pronunciation used when the word is pronounced alone (its isolation form ) and with stress, but they may also note common weak forms of pronunciation. The stem

3750-404: The details of the sexual activities. In Hooper's interpretation, Catullus 3 is a lament about a temporary impotence. The idea that the word passer in Catullus 2 and 3 is a euphemism for penis apparently dates back to Classical antiquity (cf. Martial with his "I shall give you the sparrow of Catullus"); scholars kept arguing about this interpretation literally for hundreds of years, since

3825-476: The dialect or level of formality. A few examples (slightly exaggerated; apostrophes added to indicate elision): Gender roles also influence elision in Japanese. It is considered masculine to elide, especially the final u of the polite verb forms ( -masu , desu ), but women are traditionally encouraged to do the opposite. However, excessive elision is generally associated with lower prestige , and inadequate elision

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3900-456: The examples in the above table. However, these types of elisions are rarely shown in modern writing and never shown in formal writing. In formal writing, the words are written the same whether or not the speaker would elide them, but in many plays and classic American literature, words are often written with an elision to demonstrate accent: "Well, we ain't got any," George exploded. "Whatever we ain't got, that's what you want. God a'mighty , if I

3975-429: The first infinitive, marked with -(t)a , -(t)ä . For Japanese , the non-past (present and future) tense is used. For Arabic the third-person singular masculine of the past/perfect tense is the least-marked form and is used for entries in modern dictionaries. In older dictionaries, which are still commonly used, the triliteral of the word, either a verb or a noun, is used. This is similar to Hebrew , which also uses

4050-418: The following from Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray, published in 1751: The term deletion is used in some modern work instead of elision . When contemporary or historic deletion is treated in terms of Generative phonology it is usual to explain the process as one of substituting zero for a phoneme, in the form of a phonological rule . The form of such rules is typically An example of

4125-457: The following word if it started with a vowel or h; words ending with -m would also be elided in the same way (this is called ecthlipsis). In writing, unlike in Greek, this would not be shown, with the normal spelling of the word represented. For instance, line 5 of Virgil 's Aeneid is written as " multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem ", even though it would be pronounced as " multa quoquet bello passus, dum conderet urbem ". It

4200-404: The girl's loss into his own gain with certain amount of mockery. In the beginning of the poem, the poet "controls the proceedings", directing Venuses and Amores, and later all men of refine ( venustiores ) to mourn, following the script of Roman funerals, where a family member or a professional mourner ( praefica ) would ask the crowd to remember the loss. The fact that all the commotion is about

4275-469: The headword, and encyclopedic information about the concepts represented by the word. For example, the headword bread may contain the following (simplified) definitions: The Academic Dictionary of Lithuanian contains around 500,000 headwords. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) has around 273,000 headwords along with 220,000 other lemmas, while Webster's Third New International Dictionary has about 470,000. The Deutsches Wörterbuch (DWB),

4350-461: The infinitive instead (except for Bulgarian, which lacks infinitives; for contracted verbs in Ancient Greek, an uncontracted first person singular present tense is used to reveal the contract vowel: φιλέω philéō for φιλῶ philō "I love" [implying affection], ἀγαπάω agapáō for ἀγαπῶ agapō "I love" [implying regard]). Finnish dictionaries list verbs not under their root, but under

4425-441: The inflected prepositions: arna i , not * arnaf i - 'on me', etc. These always retain their final -f in the literary register , however. Welsh also displays elision of initial syllables in singular/plural or collective/singulative pairs where the plural or singulative becomes longer than two syllables. This, however, is now restricted to specific nouns and is not productive. E.g. hosan / sanau - 'sock / socks' where

4500-437: The initial ho- has been lost in the plural; adar / deryn - 'birds / a bird' where the initial a- has been lost in the singulative. Lemma (morphology) In morphology and lexicography , a lemma ( pl. : lemmas or lemmata ) is the canonical form , dictionary form , or citation form of a set of word forms. In English, for example, break , breaks , broke , broken and breaking are forms of

4575-401: The language also has cases , the citation form is often the masculine singular nominative. For many languages, the citation form of a verb is the infinitive : French aller , German gehen , Hindustani जाना / جانا , Spanish ir . English verbs usually have an infinitive, which in its bare form (without the particle to ) is its least marked (for example, break

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4650-551: The largest lexicon of the German language , has around 330,000 headwords. These values are cited by the dictionary makers and may not use exactly the same definition of a headword. In addition, headwords may not accurately reflect a dictionary's physical size. The OED and the DWB , for instance, include exhaustive historical reviews and exact citations from source documents not usually found in standard dictionaries. The term 'lemma' comes from

4725-593: The mid-16th century, when Muretus disagreed with the Politian 's 15th century view of passer as a code for obscenity. The dispute even embroiled the Latin dictionaries, with mentions of peculiarly lascivious behavior of passer birds dropped by the Harpers' Latin Dictionary at the end of the 19th century. Elerick credits the longevity of the dispute to Catullus' reputation as a master of double-entendre , and comes up with

4800-504: The poem also reflects on the power relationships in the Roman society, in particular, between a child slave ( deliciae , symbolized by the bird) and their master. Following the printing of Catullus' works in 1472, Poems 2 and 3 gained new influence and ignited the dispute on the meaning of the passer , with some scholars suggesting that the word did not mean a sparrow, but was a phallic symbol , particularly if sinu in line 2 of Catullus 2

4875-654: The practice in Greco-Roman antiquity of using the word to refer to the headwords of marginal glosses in scholia ; for this reason, the Ancient Greek plural form is sometimes used, namely lemmata (Greek λῆμμα, pl. λήμματα). Catullus 3 Catullus 3 is a poem by Roman poet Gaius Valerius Catullus ( c.  84 – c.  54 BCE) that laments the death of a pet sparrow ( passer ) for which an unnamed girl ( puella ), possibly Catullus' lover Lesbia , had an affection. Written in hendecasyllabic meter , it

4950-468: The rhyme of a syllable, and word-medial /r/ which would form the onset of the second syllable of "hearing". The following rule deletes /r/ in "hear", giving /hɪə/, but does not apply in the case of "hearing", giving /hɪərɪŋ/. Examples of elision in English: Most elisions in English are not mandatory, but they are used in common practice and even sometimes in more formal speech. This applies to nearly all

5025-424: The same lexeme , with break as the lemma by which they are indexed. Lexeme , in this context, refers to the set of all the inflected or alternating forms in the paradigm of a single word, and lemma refers to the particular form that is chosen by convention to represent the lexeme. Lemmas have special significance in highly inflected languages such as Arabic , Turkish , and Russian . The process of determining

5100-526: The silent d may lead to hypercorrections like * bacalado for bacalao ( cod ) or * Bilbado for Bilbao . Tamil has a set of rules for elision. They are categorised into classes based on the phoneme where elision occurs: In Pakistan, elision has become very common in speech. Commonly used words have single consonants or syllables removed in casual speech and it is becoming more acceptable in formal settings due to an increasing understandability and use. Although not seen when writing in

5175-413: The styles of speech in which elision is most commonly found, using terms such as "casual speech", "spontaneous speech", "allegro speech" or "rapid speech". In addition, what may appear to be the disappearance of a sound may in fact be a change in the articulation of a sound that makes it less audible. For example, it has been said that in some dialects of Spanish the word-final -ado , as in cansado (tired)

5250-439: The third-person singular masculine perfect form, e.g. ברא bara' create, כפר kaphar deny. Georgian uses the verbal noun . For Korean , -da is attached to the stem. In Tamil , an agglutinative language , the verb stem (which is also the imperative form - the least marked one) is often cited, e.g., இரு In Irish , words are highly inflected by case (genitive, nominative, dative and vocative) and by their place within

5325-412: The vowel. Nouns and adjectives that end with unstressed "el" or "er" have the "e" elided when they are declined or a suffix follows. ex. teuer becomes teure , teuren , etc., and Himmel + -isch becomes himmlisch . The final e of a noun is also elided when another noun or suffix is concatenated onto it: Strafe + Gesetzbuch becomes Strafgesetzbuch . In both of

5400-429: The word is not useful, as can be seen in the phonological forms of the words in the preceding example: "produced" / p r ə ˈ dj uː s t / vs. "production" / p r ə ˈ d ʌ k ʃ ən / . Some lexemes have several stems but one lemma. For instance the verb " to go " has the stems "go" and "went" due to suppletion : the past tense was co-opted from a different verb, " to wend ". A headword or catchword

5475-421: Was alone I could live so easy. I could go get a job an' work , an' no trouble. No mess at all, and when the end of the month come I could take my fifty bucks and go into town and get whatever I want. Why, I could stay in a cathouse all night. I could eat any place I want, hotel or any place, and order any damn thing I could think of. An' I could do all that every damn month. Get a gallon of whisky, or set in

5550-431: Was the first application of the genealogical method of textual criticism . In the original manuscript, Catullus 3 and Catullus 2 were parts of the same text, but the two poems were separated by scholars in the 16th century. Ingleheart finds epigrammatic features in the poem, including a connection with Greek epigrams: the poem, starting with the first word, reads like an epitaph . Tradition of epigrams to dead pets

5625-427: Was well established at the time (Thomas points to a potential borrowing from Meleager ). The Hellenistic epigrams about dead pets are somewhat parodic , exploiting the disconnect between the ultimately serious topic of death and an insignificance of an animal. Catullus utilizes this effect to focus the attention of the reader on the girl, not the sparrow, producing a celebration of mea puella and essentially turning

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