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80-941: An electro-optical targeting system (EOTS), is a system employed to track and locate targets in aerial warfare . It can use charge-coupled device TV cameras, laser rangefinders and laser designators . This video technology article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Aerial warfare Historically, military aircraft have included lighter-than-air balloons carrying artillery observers ; lighter-than-air airships for bombing cities; various sorts of reconnaissance , surveillance , and early warning aircraft carrying observers, cameras, and radar equipment; torpedo bombers to attack enemy vessels; and military air-sea rescue aircraft for saving downed airmen . Modern aerial warfare includes missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles . Surface forces are likely to respond to enemy air activity with anti-aircraft warfare . The history of aerial warfare began in ancient times, with

160-538: A rocket (although these too can also be guided ). Missiles have four system components: targeting and/or missile guidance , flight system, engine, and warhead. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes: surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles ( ballistic , cruise , anti-ship , anti-tank , etc.), surface-to-air missiles (and anti-ballistic ), air-to-air missiles , and anti-satellite weapons . All known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside

240-575: A rocket engine , jet engine , or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are generally referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is " any thrown object ", such as objects thrown at players by rowdy spectators at a sporting event. The advent of the unmanned aerial vehicle has dramatically revolutionised aerial warfare with multiple nations developing and/or purchasing UAV fleets. Several benchmarks have already occurred, including

320-480: A UAV-fighter jet dogfight , probes of adversary air defense with UAVs, replacement of an operational flight wing's aircraft with UAVs, control of UAVs qualifying the operator for 'combat' status, UAV-control from the other side of the world, jamming and/or data-hijacking of UAVs in flight, as well as proposals to transfer fire authority to AI aboard a UAV. UAVs have quickly evolved from surveillance to combat roles. The growing capability of UAVs has thrown into question

400-470: A decrease in turn rate. "Instantaneous turn-rate" describes turns which are above the maximum sustainable-load. These turns can be as high as 9 g's before the pilot begins to lose consciousness ( G-LOC ). These turns can have a very small turn radius, but cause a loss in energy, either in the form of speed or altitude. Therefore, these turns are unsustainable, causing the fighter to lose massive amounts of airspeed, sometimes reaching stall speed in as little as

480-443: A decrease in turn rate. If the pilot attempts to "pull" more g's, the aircraft will buffet and aerodynamically stall . On the other hand, if the fighter is flown above its corner speed it will be able to pull higher g's, but doing so will cause it to lose airspeed from the excess drag created. Turning at the maximum sustainable-load at speeds above the corner speed will result in an increase in turn radius which, respectively, will cause

560-455: A kill. An offensive position is generally defined as the ability to get above or behind the enemy. The pilot is able to create an energy advantage, providing the ability to swoop down on the opponent and spray the area with bullets while using the speed to climb back to a safe altitude. The attacker also has an orientation-related advantage, being able to press the attack while avoiding the enemy's weapons. A defensive position usually occurs when

640-427: A more useful measure is the specific energy , the energy per unit weight. Lighter aircraft generally have higher specific energy for any given operational conditions. Energy state can be changed through the application of power. Heavier aircraft will require more power to change their energy state, so two aircraft with equal energy will not have the same maneuverability. This leads to the concept of "specific power" in

720-426: A new flight path. By controlling the roll rate the pilot can control the degree of displacement. An attacker following a more maneuverable opponent may become stuck in lag pursuit (outside the defender's turn radius), unable to achieve a firing solution. By displacing the turn, the two aircraft's flight paths will eventually cross. The AOT will then decrease until the nose of the attacker's aircraft points momentarily at

800-399: A pitch turn occurs when the aircraft's nose points above the horizon, causing an increase in altitude. A slice turn happens when the nose points below the horizon, causing a decrease in altitude. The purpose is not only to make the aircraft harder for an enemy to track, but also to increase or decrease speed while maintaining energy. An out-of-plane maneuver enhances this effect, by diverting

880-486: A position from which an attack can be made on another aircraft. It relies on offensive and defensive basic fighter manoeuvring (BFM) to gain an advantage over an aerial opponent. Airborne forces are military units, usually light infantry , set up to be moved by aircraft and "dropped" into battle, typically by parachute . Thus, they can be placed behind enemy lines, and have the capability to deploy almost anywhere with little warning. The formations are limited only by

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960-451: A quarter turn. Above the maximum sustained turn-rate, aerodynamic drag exceeds the maximum engine thrust (aircraft has zero "excess power"), meaning aircraft specific energy will be lost even when applying full engine power. Only by turning the aircraft at its best "sustained turn-rate" can the aircraft maintain its specific energy. However, situations in combat may require a change in energy, and energy may also be increased by pulling less than

1040-420: Is reconnaissance for a military or strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance aircraft . This role can fulfil a variety of requirements, including the collection of imagery intelligence , observation of enemy maneuvers and artillery spotting . Air combat manoeuvring (also known as ACM or dogfighting ) is the tactical art of moving, turning and situating a fighter aircraft in order to attain

1120-440: Is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating the enemy by destroying their morale or their economic ability to produce and transport materiel to the theatres of military operations , or both. It is a systematically organized and executed attack from the air which can utilize strategic bombers , long- or medium-range missiles , or nuclear-armed fighter-bomber aircraft to attack targets deemed vital to

1200-400: Is a large amount of forward separation between aircraft, showing the top side of the defending fighter. This puts the attacker in the defender's rear view, and the common defense is to tighten the turn. "Cold side" lag occurs when there is little nose-to-tail separation, leaving the belly of the defending fighter in view. This puts the attacker in the defender's blind spot, and the common defense

1280-566: Is known as "energy maneuverability". Maneuverability is not solely a factor of energy or specific power, many other factors like the efficiency of the wing platform at generating lift, or the load limits of the aircraft, can limit the maneuverability in ways that are not directly related to weight and power. This gives different aircraft very different types of performance under various maneuvers. For instance, an aircraft with high thrust for weight may have high specific excess power but nevertheless suffer from very high induced drag during turns - this

1360-442: Is normally expressed for an aircraft flying straight and level. Turning requires an expenditure of energy, both to change the energy state of the aircraft, as well as due to the additional induced drag that is naturally created as a side effect of generating the lift force required to change direction. This implies that an aircraft with higher specific excess power has higher sustained maneuverability performance. This overall concept

1440-447: Is to reverse the turn. Unless the defender is markedly more maneuverable, and lateral separation is just right, lag pursuit can not be maintained for long, causing the AOT to decrease until a suitable firing solution is presented. Maneuvers are rarely performed in the strictly vertical or horizontal planes. Most turns contain some degree of "pitch" or "slice". During a turn in an oblique plane,

1520-480: Is used to provide closure. However, closure is not as rapid, nor is the rate of increase in AOT. This is not as effective against a faster moving opponent, so the attacker may need to accelerate to maintain pure pursuit. Pure pursuit is used when acquiring a missile lock for missiles with caged seekers. It both places the attacker further aft of the defender and presents the defender with the smallest amount of surface area to see. This complicates evasive action, since only

1600-405: Is well within the defender's rear view. Unless the defender has enough of a speed advantage to escape by relaxing the turn and dropping into a shallow dive, the defender will likely turn sharply in an effort to increase the AOT, forcing the attacker to turn even harder, to overshoot, or to perform a maneuver out of the horizontal plane to compensate. Lead pursuit is used during gun attacks, because

1680-548: The use of planes and zeppelins for strategic bombing also emerged . The rise of fighter aircraft and of air-to-air combat led to a realisation of the desirability of achieving air superiority . Closer integration of attacking aircraft with ground operations ("battlefield support") also developed during World War I . During World War II (1939-1945), the use of strategic bombing increased, while airborne forces , missiles, and early precision-guided munitions were introduced. Aircraft carriers gained particular importance in

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1760-436: The [Red] Baron would say, 'All else is rubbish.'". Basic fighter maneuvers (BFM) are used by fighter pilots during a dogfight to gain a positional advantage over an opponent. Pilots must have keen knowledge of not only their own aircraft's performance characteristics, but also of the opponents, taking advantage of their own strengths while exploiting the enemy's weaknesses. Pilots need good eyesight, situation awareness , and

1840-579: The finger four , loose deuce, and Thach weave , pilots learn how to maneuver in situations involving one against one, one against two, two against two, two against many, or even one against many. This type of training, introduced during the last stages of flight school, is more like actual combat, and is the most beneficial for aircrew once basic BFM skills are mastered. Energy is a primary factor in controlling and maneuvering an aircraft. If an attacker has too much energy, it may be easy to get in range but difficult to prevent an overshoot. Too little energy and

1920-483: The " barrel roll attack", "high Yo-Yo", "low Yo-Yo", and "lag roll". Defensive maneuvers more often consist of turning very aggressively to avoid the attacker's guns, with maneuvers like the "break" and the "high Yo-Yo defense"; sometimes tightening the turn, sometimes relaxing it, and other times reversing the turn. The defender will usually maneuver to force an overshoot, or to extend the range enough to dive away and escape. However, other "last-ditch" maneuvers are used by

2000-585: The 109 in between the breaks in the clouds as I dove. At 12,000 feet I leveled off and watched him up ahead. In diving I had picked up speed, and now had hit 550 miles an hour. I was about 500 feet below him and closing fast. Quick now, I've got time. I checked all around, in back and above me, to ensure that no other [Germans] were doing the same to me. My speed was slacking off now, but I still had enough to pick up that extra 500 feet and position myself 200 yards dead astern. The 109 flew as straight as an arrow, with no weaving. As his plane filled my gunsight, I pressed

2080-549: The [trigger]. Much of the modern energy-management techniques, which are used in maneuvers like the Yo-Yos, were only described scientifically after John R. Boyd developed his Energy-Maneuverability theory during the Vietnam War . Even so, as quoted by the U.S Navy Air Training Command, "1) The basics of ACM have not changed since the early days of aviation, and 2) A fighter pilot must maintain constant aggressiveness for success. As

2160-462: The ability to maneuver against an opponent in three dimensions. BFM are generally grouped into two categories: Primary maneuvers are those which are performed without respect to an enemy's position. These are often simple maneuvers, such as climbs, turns, aileron rolls , slow rolls , and rudder rolls . Relative maneuvers are performed in relation to the motion of another aircraft. These are often more complex, including energy saving maneuvers, such as

2240-443: The aircraft's energy-to-mass ratio, called its specific energy . Maneuvers are used to gain a better angular position in relation to the opponent. They can be offensive, to help an attacker gain an advantage on an enemy; or defensive, to help the defender evade an attacker's weapons. They can also be neutral, where both opponents strive for an offensive position or disengagement maneuvers, to help an escape. Classic maneuvers include

2320-521: The angle between flight paths, and the Angle Off Tail (AOT), also called Aspect Angle, which is the angle between the defender's flight path and a line between defender and attacker. A high TCA causes a high rate of closure, but makes achieving a suitable guns solution nearly impossible. Acquiring a low AOT and TCA (getting on an enemy's tail) is usually the primary goal before an overshoot occurs. An uncooperative defender may try to take advantage of

2400-415: The area of 250–400  kn (290–460  mph ; 460–740  km/h ). The maximum sustainable-load the aircraft can generate also varies, but is typically between 3 and 5 g's. At the corner speed, the fighter can attain its maximum turn-rate, flying the craft just at the edge of buffeting (the turbulence preceding a stall). Below this speed, the aircraft will be limited to flying at lower g's, resulting in

2480-422: The attacker can maneuver onto the defender's flight path before an overshoot occurs, the attacker will be able to stop or reverse closure rate. The most desirable position is following the defender's flight path at a distance equal to one turn radius behind the opponent. This position, from which the attacker will be able to safely maintain command of the fight, is termed the "control point". The control point lies in

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2560-411: The attacker may not be able to get in range at all. If the defender has more energy than the attacker, an escape may be possible, but too little energy and the defender will lose maneuverability. In aviation, the term "energy" does not refer to the fuel nor the thrust it produces. Instead, thrust is referred to as "power". Energy is the state of the fighter's mass at any given time, and is the result of

2640-403: The attacker points ahead of the defender, while "pure pursuit" happens when the attacker's nose points directly at the defender. If the attacker's nose points behind the defender, the condition is known as "lag pursuit". The primary purpose for lead pursuit is to provide closure, even when chasing a faster opponent. The low TCA presented during lead pursuit allows the attacker to quickly decrease

2720-486: The attacker's guns, and to try to circle around behind the attacker. BFM are a constant series of trade-offs between these limitations to conserve the specific energy state of the aircraft. Even if there is no great difference between the energy states of combating aircraft, there will be as soon as the attacker accelerates to catch up with the defender. However, potential energy can easily be traded for kinetic energy, so an aircraft with an altitude advantage can easily turn

2800-772: The changing weapons and technologies. Basic fighter maneuvers consist of many varying tactical turns, rolls, and other actions to get behind or above an enemy, before the opponent can do the same. BFM are typically universal maneuvers which can be performed in almost any fighter aircraft, and are usually considered to be training maneuvers. Training usually begins with pilots flying the same type of aircraft, pitting only their skills against each other. In advanced training, pilots learn to fly against opponents in different types of aircraft, so pilots must learn to cope with different technological advantages as well, which more resembles real combat. In actual air combat maneuvering, variations of these basic maneuvers may become necessary, depending on

2880-455: The classic "dogfights". One specific maneuver that did emerge was the defensive Lufbery , in which several allied aircraft would fly in a circle so that any attackers trying to position against one of the aircraft would fly directly in front of the aircraft behind them. As engines became more powerful, three-dimensional tactics became available to counter the stalemate of the Lufbery, and by WWII it

2960-427: The defender when the attacker achieves a firing solution , or the defender's energy becomes depleted so that maximum turn performance cannot be maintained, such as "guns defense" or the "defensive spiral". Basic fighter maneuver development began during World War I , with maneuvers such as the " Immelmann ", named after German pilot Max Immelmann , the "break" and the " barrel roll ". The modern Immelmann differs from

3040-439: The defender will usually maneuver in order to force a dangerous overshoot. A dangerous overshoot happens when an attacker flies out in front of the defender, causing their roles to be reversed. Once an attacker gets behind a defender, there are three problems to solve in order to prosecute the kill. The attacker must be able to get into the same geometric plane as the defender, get in range without overshooting, and be able to lead

3120-478: The defender, and then ahead of the defender. A displacement roll is a good tactic when ever a reduction in turn radius is needed, but a decrease in turn rate is allowed. There are three basic situations in air combat maneuvering requiring BFM to convert to a favorable result, which are neutral, offensive, and defensive. Most relative maneuvers can be grouped into one of these three categories. Neutral positions generally occur when both opponents spot each other at

3200-411: The defender, using roll rate instead of turn rate to set the proper pursuit curve. The aircraft's velocity vector (an imaginary line in the direction of motion) will be pulled in the direction of the lift vector. A useful type of out-of-plane maneuver employed to decrease AOT are various barrel rolls called displacement rolls, in order to shift the aircraft laterally from its projected flight path onto

3280-492: The different types of aircraft involved, the weapon systems each side is using, and the number of aircraft involved. BFM are used in the three-dimensional arena of air combat, where maneuvers are not limited by simple two-dimensional turns, such as during a car chase. BFM not only relies on an aircraft's turn performance, but also on the pilot's ability to make trade-offs between airspeed ( kinetic energy ) and altitude ( potential energy ) to maintain an energy level that will allow

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3360-457: The enemy's war-making capability. Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures (e.g. barrage balloons ). It may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries

3440-525: The energy available in case one does occur. Both turn rate (degrees per second), and turn radius (diameter of the turn), increase with speed, until the " corner speed " is reached. Corner speed is defined as the minimum speed at which the maximum sustainable g-force load can be generated (the load at which power equals drag), and varies with the fighter's structural design, wing loading characteristics, weight (including added weight from missiles, drop-tanks, etc...), and thrust capabilities. It often falls in

3520-406: The fast motion of combat requires that the aircraft's cannons be aimed at a point in space ahead of the defender, where the enemy will be when the bullets arrive. This is called "leading the target". Lead pursuit presents the attacker with difficulty in maintaining sight of the opponent, as the nose of the attacking aircraft becomes an obstruction to the pilot's view. Like lead pursuit, pure pursuit

3600-430: The fighter into a new plane of travel. Increasing the pitch or slice can quickly provide a change in speed, which can just as quickly be reversed by returning to the original plane of travel. Out-of-plane maneuvers are not only used to provide a reduction in turn radius, but also causes the fighter to fly a longer path in relation to the direction of travel. A maneuver such as a high Yo-Yo is used to slow closure and to bring

3680-414: The fighter into lag pursuit, while a low Yo-Yo is used to increase closure and to bring the fighter into lead pursuit. During an out-of-plane maneuver, the attacker's nose no longer points at the defender. Instead, the aircraft is rolled until its lift vector (an imaginary line running vertically from the center of the aircraft, perpendicular to its wings), is aligned either ahead of, directly at, or behind

3760-407: The fighter to continue maneuvering efficiently. BFM also relies on the pilot's understanding of the geometry of pursuit within the three-dimensional arena, where different angles of approach can cause different rates of closure. The fighter pilot uses these angles not only to get within a range where weapons can be used, but also to avoid overshooting , which consists either of flying out in front of

3840-559: The fighter with higher energy and better retention will make an "energy move", like a high yo-yo to maintain the energy advantage, while the fighter at an energy disadvantage (angles fighter) will make an "angles move" such as a break turn, trying to use the opponent's energy to their own advantage. In combat, a pilot is faced with a variety of limiting factors. Some limitations are constant, such as gravity , structural integrity , and thrust-to-weight ratio . Other limitations vary with speed and altitude, such as turn radius , turn rate, and

3920-421: The forward, lateral, and vertical separation between aircraft, simply by traveling a shorter path. However, lead pursuit causes the AOT to increase at a rapid rate if the defender is out-turning the attacker. This causes the closure rate to increase as well, and, in an attempt to prevent an overshoot, the attacker will have to pull an increasingly tighter turn upon nearing the defender. An attacker in lead pursuit

4000-452: The front of the attacking aircraft is in view. Lag pursuit is used to stop or reverse closure rate and to decrease the aspect angle, while allowing the attacker to maintain or increase forward separation (also called nose/tail separation, or nose-to-tail). Following outside the defender's turn radius, the attacker can maintain or increase energy while forcing the defender to turn at an energy depleting rate. "Hot side" lag occurs when there

4080-537: The high and low Yo-Yos, and repositioning maneuvers such as displacement rolls. It is easy to fall into the trap of considering BFM to be a series of set maneuvers providing a foolproof recipe for a dominant position. The reality is that BFM are a series of fluid and often improvised proactive and reactive actions, varying infinitely according to range, altitude, speed, aircraft type, weapons system type and any of an enormous range of other factors. An extremely successful tactic one day may yield unfortunate results if repeated

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4160-401: The high closure rate by turning to increase TCA, forcing an overshoot. The TCA is defined by the actual movement path of both aircraft, but is often estimated by Heading Crossing Angle (HCA), defined by the heading of the attacking aircraft's nose in relation to the defender's nose. TCA are generally grouped into three categories, called "pursuit curves". "Lead pursuit" occurs when the nose of

4240-427: The lag pursuit or yo-yo, which add distance when the attacker may overshoot the target due to higher airspeed, the low yo-yo, which does the opposite when the attacker is flying too slow, the scissors, which attempts to drive the attacker in front of the defender, and the defensive spiral, which allows a defender to disengage from an attacker. Situational awareness is often taught as the best tactical defense, removing

4320-447: The main effort has tended to be 'homeland defence'. NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare . Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight. In modern usage, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as

4400-462: The maximum sustained g-force load. Successful BFM requires geometry as much as it does skill and stamina. Pilots must know their aircraft's corner speed, as well as optimum angles of bank (AOB) and angles of attack (AOA), without consciously thinking about them. Most importantly, the pilot must remain aware of the Track Crossing Angle (TCA), also sometimes called an Angle-Off, which is

4480-531: The next day, and pilots often credit luck as a major factor. BFM are normally considered to be individual maneuvers, where ACM is applied to the tactics behind dogfighting as a whole. In military training, BFM are often conducted against an adversary in the same type of aircraft. This allows the pilot to fly against a machine with known performance values and allows aircrew to build their awareness of important concepts such as sight picture, rates of closure and line of sight rates that are cues to being successful in

4560-545: The number and size of their aircraft, so given enough capacity a huge force can appear "out of nowhere" in minutes, an action referred to as vertical envelopment . Conversely, airborne forces typically lack the supplies and equipment for prolonged combat operations, and are therefore more suited for airhead operations than for long-term occupation; furthermore, parachute operations are particularly sensitive to adverse weather conditions. Advances in helicopter technology since World War II have brought increased flexibility to

4640-427: The opponent, called a "wingline overshoot", or crossing the enemy's flight path, called a "flight path overshoot". The fighter pilot with the most advantageous position is usually above or behind the opponent, and is commonly called the attacker. Conversely, the pilot in the disadvantageous position is usually either below or ahead of the opponent, and is referred to as the defender. Most maneuvers are offensive, such as

4720-450: The original version, which is now called a stall turn or "Hammerhead turn". The Immelmann turn was an effective maneuver in the early part of the war but as aircraft technology advanced and fighter engines became more powerful, it became a dangerous maneuver, because the opponent could climb and shoot the German fighters when they were almost motionless at the top of the turn. Billy Bishop ,

4800-455: The other aircraft and, therefore, must rely on the fundamental BFM principles and evaluation/decision making skills to maneuver to an advantageous position versus their opponent. In this type of training, the advantages of one type of fighter may differ greatly from the advantages of the other, so pilots learn to refine their BFM skills to make use of the opponent's weaknesses. Using BFM as the building blocks for multiple aircraft maneuvers, such as

4880-434: The pilot gets sight of the opponent first. With the advantage of surprise, the pilot can maneuver into a better position to attack the opponent, making it more difficult for the enemy to evade the attack. Common tactics include increasing altitude and attempting to place the fighter directly between the sun and the opponent. This helps put the pilot in a dominant position, primarily concerned with prosecuting their advantage for

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4960-418: The pilot spots the attacker late. Usually below or ahead of the opponent, the pilot is in a weak position, primarily concerned with denying a shot to the opponent and converting to a neutral position. The secondary goal is either to escape or to achieve a dominant position. If the attacker is at an energy disadvantage, the defender will likely use the speed to disengage, but, if the attacker is moving much faster,

5040-413: The possibility of an attacker getting or remaining behind the pilot; even with speed , a fighter is open to attack from the rear. Basic fighter maneuvers (BFM) are actions that a fighter aircraft makes during air combat maneuvering , historically known as dogfighting . The development of BFM began with the first fighter aircraft, during World War I , then continued with each following war , adapting to

5120-416: The post in relation to the fighter. Because an aircraft turning at its maximum load cannot turn any tighter, any aircraft located between such a fighter and its post is momentarily safe from attack. It is in this area where an attacking fighter will usually try to position itself. Once inside the defender's bubble, the attacker will be in lead pursuit and may have an opportunity for a lucky "snapshot" hit. If

5200-428: The potential energy into speed. Instead of applying thrust, a pilot may use gravity to provide a sudden increase in speed, by diving, at a cost in the potential energy that was stored in the form of altitude. Similarly, by climbing the pilot can use gravity to provide a decrease in speed, conserving the aircraft's kinetic energy by changing it into altitude. This can help an attacker to prevent an overshoot , while keeping

5280-412: The power. Energy comes in two forms, which are kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is a function of the fighter's mass and speed, while potential energy is a function of its mass, gravity and altitude. The combined potential and kinetic energy is called the total energy. Because the energy package is the combination of mass, speed and altitude, a fighter flying at low altitude but a high speed may have

5360-457: The same fashion as specific energy. For any given operational condition, a selected speed and altitude for instance, any given aircraft will require a certain amount of power simply to maintain those conditions, due largely to the effects of drag. This gives rise to the concept of "specific excess power", the amount of additional power available to an aircraft over and above the power needed to maintain those flight conditions. Specific excess power

5440-442: The same time. Neither the pilot nor the opponent have the advantage of surprise. Neither has the ability to point the nose of their aircraft at the opponent with sufficient range to employ forward firing ordnance (missiles/guns) prior to the opponent presenting a threat of a similar manner. Each is focused on converting to an offensive situation while forcing their opponent into a defensive. An offensive position generally occurs when

5520-511: The same total energy as a fighter of equal mass, but flying at a low speed and high altitude. One of the inputs to the formula for total energy is the mass of the object, in this case the aircraft. This means that two aircraft flying under identical conditions of speed and altitude will have different energy; the heavier aircraft will have higher energy. However, this does not imply that the heavier aircraft will be more maneuverable, as that mass will require more energy to accelerate. For this reason,

5600-496: The scope of airborne operations, and air assaults have largely replaced large-scale parachute operations, and (almost) completely replaced combat glider operations. An airstrike or air strike is an offensive operation carried out by attack aircraft . Air strikes are mostly delivered from aircraft such as fighters , bombers , ground attack aircraft , and attack helicopters . The official definition includes all sorts of targets, including enemy air targets, but in popular use

5680-471: The specific energy of the aircraft. The fighter pilot uses BFM to turn these limitations into tactical advantages. A faster, heavier aircraft may not be able to evade a more maneuverable aircraft in a turning battle, but can often choose to break off the fight and escape by diving or using its thrust to provide a speed advantage. A lighter, more maneuverable aircraft can not usually choose to escape, but must use its smaller turning radius at higher speeds to evade

5760-421: The survivability and capability of manned fighter jets. Basic fighter manoeuvres Basic fighter maneuvers ( BFM ) are tactical movements performed by fighter aircraft during air combat maneuvering (ACM, also called dogfighting ), to gain a positional advantage over the opponent. BFM combines the fundamentals of aerodynamic flight and the geometry of pursuit, with the physics of managing

5840-412: The target. The defender will usually turn aggressively to spoil the attacker's solution. Aircraft turn in circular motions, following a circumference around a central point. The circumference is often referred to as the "bubble", while the central point is often called the "post". Any change in the g-force load on the aircraft causes a change in the bubble's size as well as a change in turn radius, moving

5920-457: The term is usually narrowed to a tactical (small-scale) attack on a ground or naval objective. Weapons used in an airstrike can range from machine gun bullets and missiles to various types of bombs . It is also commonly referred to as an air raid . In close air support , air strikes are usually controlled by trained observers for coordination with friendly ground troops in a manner derived from artillery tactics. Strategic bombing

6000-468: The top Canadian ace of World War I, described a break: Watching carefully over your shoulder and judging the moment he will open fire, you turn your machine quickly so as to fly at right angles to him. His bullets will generally pass behind you during the maneuver. During World War I, due to the low power of early aircraft, vertical movements were difficult and extended maneuvering led to a loss of energy. Combat tended to degenerate into individual attacks,

6080-678: The trans-oceanic projection of air power . Ballistic missiles became of key importance during the Cold War , were armed with nuclear warheads , and were stockpiled by the United States and the Soviet Union to deter each other from using them . Drone warfare using relatively cheap unmanned equipment proliferated in the 21st century, particularly after the start of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020. Aerial reconnaissance

6160-594: The use of man-carrying kites in Ancient China . In the third century it progressed to balloon warfare . Airships (notably zeppelins ) served in military use in the early years of the 20th century. Heavier-than-air airplanes first went to war in the Italo-Turkish War in 1911, initially for aerial reconnaissance , and then for aerial combat to shoot down enemy reconnaissance planes. Aircraft continued to carry out these roles during World War I (1914-1918), where

6240-407: The visual arena. This also allows pilots to build their BFM skills against one another, without either having a particular technological advantage. Dissimilar air combat training (DACT) consists of advanced maneuvers performed by aircraft of two separate types (such as F-16 vs F/A-18). This training is valuable in that both pilots are not as aware of the performance capabilities and characteristics of

6320-552: Was no longer effective. Development continued through each war, as aircraft and weapon systems became more advanced. Maneuvers such as the "combat spread" were first devised by pilots like Werner Mölders during the Spanish Civil War . A simple, non-turning form of the low-Yo-Yo is depicted in John T. Godfrey 's description of his first kill, flying a Republic P-47 Thunderbolt over Europe during World War II; Breathlessly I watched

6400-523: Was very common on delta wing aircraft for instance - in which case it will attempt to avoid turns and instead use climbs and dives to its advantage. Such aircraft are referred to as "energy fighters". Others, typically those with lower wing loading , may have less excess power but nevertheless be able to perform turns without losing as much energy, and are referred to as "angles fighters" or "dog-fighters". When two aircraft meet in combat, they may have different energy states and energy retention. Typically,

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