Misplaced Pages

#721278

102-562: The Egyptian Olympic Committee was founded during the Khedivate of Egypt on June 13, 1910 in Alexandria by Angelo Bolanaki, first Egyptian athlete who participated in international sport competitions outside country. Egypt's first ever Olympic participation came in the 1912 Stockholm Olympic Games with one athlete in fencing, Ahmed Hassanein . Egypt was the 14th country to join the IOC . The following

204-631: A Mamluk army in the Battle of the Pyramids and drove the survivors out to Upper Egypt . The Mamluks relied on massed cavalry charges, changed only by the addition of muskets . The French infantry formed square and held firm. Despite multiple victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, mounting conflict in Europe and the earlier defeat of the supporting French fleet by the British Royal Navy at

306-402: A Mamluk rose to become Sultan of Egypt . The Mamluks in medieval Egypt were predominantly of White Turkic and Circassian origins, and most of them descended from enslaved Christians. After they were taken from their families, they became renegades. Because Egyptian Mamluks were enslaved Christians, Muslim rulers and clerics did not believe they were true believers of Islam despite

408-614: A coastal strip but expanded subsequently inland into territory controlled by the Ethiopian emperor. Here Ismail occupied regions originally claimed by the Ottomans when they had established the Habesh Eyalet in the 16th century. New economically promising projects, like huge cotton plantations in the Barka delta , were started. In 1872, Bogos (with the city of Keren ) was annexed by the governor of

510-539: A faster route to India. This made Egypt increasingly reliant on Britain for both military and economic aid. Isma'il made no effort to reconcile with the European powers, who pressured the Ottoman sultan into removing him from power. Isma'il was succeeded by his eldest son Tewfik , who, unlike his younger brothers, had not been educated in Europe. He pursued a policy of closer relations with Britain and France but his authority

612-525: A fight; the Shaigiya Confederation immediately beyond the province of Dongola were defeated; the remnant of the Mamluks dispersed; and Sennar was reduced without a battle. Muhammad Bey , the defterdar , with another force of about the same strength, was then sent by Muhammad Ali against Kordofan with like result, but not without a hard-fought engagement. In October 1822, Ismaʿil, with his retinue,

714-446: A fleet and in training, under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and artificers; though it was not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own vessels. By 1823, moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and Albanian elements being replaced by Sudanese and fellahin . The effectiveness of

816-470: A formidable mutiny in Cairo. Muhammad Ali's life was endangered, and he sought refuge by night in the citadel, while the soldiery committed many acts of plunder. The revolt was reduced by gifts to the chiefs of the insurgents, and Muhammad Ali ordered compensation from the treasury for those who had suffered in the disturbances. The Nizam-i Cedid (New System) project was, in consequence of this mutiny, abandoned for

918-554: A government of the Khedive and international controls which were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 1876. Egyptian Fundamental Ordinance of 1882, a constitution, followed an abortive attempt to promulgate a constitution in 1879 . The document was limited in scope and was effectively more of an organic law of the Consultative Council to the khedive than an actual constitution. British occupation ended nominally with

1020-423: A great army for the conquest of Egypt, but gave out that he intended further attacks on Persia. In 1515, Selim began the war which led to the conquest of Egypt and its dependencies. Mamluk cavalry proved no match for the Ottoman artillery and Janissary infantry . On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq , Sultan Al-Ghawri was killed. Syria passed into Turkish possession, an event welcomed in many places as it

1122-615: A result of the Convention of London (1840) , Muhammad Ali gave up all conquered lands with the exception of the Sudan and was, in turn, granted the hereditary governorship of the Sudan. By 1848, Muhammad Ali was old and senile enough for his tuberculosis-ridden son, Ibrahim , to demand his accession to the governorship. The Ottoman sultan acceded to the demands, and Muhammad Ali was removed from power. However, Ibrahim died of his disease months later, outlived by his father, who died in 1849. Ibrahim

SECTION 10

#1733085111722

1224-552: A small Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824, a fleet of 60 Egyptian warships carrying a large force of 17,000 disciplined troops concentrated in Suda Bay , and, in the following March, with Ibrahin as commander-in-chief landed in the Morea . His naval superiority wrested from the Greeks the command of a great deal of the sea, on which the fate of the insurrection ultimately depended, while on land

1326-704: A squadron of 250 Mamluks. On 7 January 1802 the previous order was canceled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. The list of effectives on 21 April 1802 reveals three officers and 155 of other rank. By decree of 25 December 1803 the Mamluks were organized into a company attached to the Chasseurs-à-Cheval of the Imperial Guard (see Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard ). Napoleon left with his personal guard in late 1799. His successor in Egypt, General Jean-Baptiste Kléber ,

1428-523: A time. While Ibrahim was engaged in the second Arabian campaign the pasha turned his attention to strengthening the Egyptian economy. He created state monopolies over the chief products of the country. He set up factories and began digging in 1819 a new canal to Alexandria called the Mahmudiyya after the sultan. The old canal had long fallen into decay and the necessity of a safe channel between Alexandria and

1530-516: A token force of about 18,000 men as a garrison. The Mamluk army, led by Qutuz, drew the reduced Ilkhanate army into an ambush near the Orontes River , routed them at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, and captured and executed Kitbuqa. After this great triumph, Qutuz was assassinated by conspiring Mamluks. It was widely said that Baibars, who seized power, had been involved in the assassination plot. In

1632-501: Is a list of presidents of the Egyptian Olympic Committee since its creation in 1910. The Egyptian National Federations are the organizations that coordinate all aspects of their individual sports. They are responsible for training, competition and development of their sports. There are currently 29 Olympic Summer Sport Federations in Egypt. At the 2016 Summer Olympics , Egyptian judoka Islam El Shahaby refused to shake

1734-496: Is owned", meaning " slave ") were non- Arab , ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic , Caucasian , Eastern and Southeastern European ) enslaved mercenaries , slave-soldiers , and freed slaves who were assigned high-ranking military and administrative duties, serving the ruling Arab and Ottoman dynasties in the Muslim world . The most enduring Mamluk realm was the knightly military class in medieval Egypt , which developed from

1836-828: The Ayyubid dynasty to the time of Muhammad Ali of Egypt , mamluks were considered to be "true lords" and "true warriors", with social status above the general population in Egypt and the Levant . In a sense, they were like enslaved mercenaries . Daniel Pipes argued that the first indication of the Mamluk military class was rooted in the practice of early Muslims such as Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Uthman ibn Affan who, before Islam, owned many slaves and practiced Mawla (Islamic manumission of slaves). The Zubayrids army under Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr , son of Zubayr, used these freed slave retainers during

1938-645: The Bahri mamluk dynasty . The first Mamluk dynasty was named Bahri after the name of one of the regiments, the Bahriyyah or River Island regiment. Its name referred to their center on Rhoda Island in the Nile . The regiment consisted mainly of Kipchaks and Cumans . When the Mongol Empire 's troops of Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad in 1258 and advanced towards Syria, the Mamluk emir Baibars left Damascus for Cairo . There he

2040-605: The Battle of Tel el-Kebir . Urabi was tried for treason and sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to exile. After the revolt, the Egyptian army was reorganized on a British model and commanded by British officers. Meanwhile, a religious rebellion had broken out in the Sudan, led by Muhammad Ahmed , who proclaimed himself the Mahdi . The Mahdist rebels had seized the regional capital of Kordofan and annihilated two British-led expeditions sent to quell it. The British soldier-adventurer Charles George Gordon , an ex-governor of

2142-473: The Battle of the Nile decided the issue. On 14 September 1799, General Jean-Baptiste Kléber established a mounted company of Mamluk auxiliaries and Syrian Janissaries from Turkish troops captured at the siege of Acre . Menou reorganized the company on 7 July 1800, forming three companies of 100 men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la République". In 1801 General Jean Rapp was sent to Marseille to organize

SECTION 20

#1733085111722

2244-539: The Burji dynasty took over when Barquq was proclaimed sultan. The name "Burji" referred to their center at the citadel of Cairo . Barquq became an enemy of Timur , who threatened to invade Syria. Timur invaded Syria, defeating the Mamluk army, and he sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus. The Ottoman sultan, Bayezid I , then invaded Syria. After Timur's death in 1405, the Mamluk sultan an-Nasir Faraj regained control of Syria. Frequently facing rebellions by local emirs , he

2346-655: The Buyid dynasty used Turkic slaves throughout their empire. The rebel al-Basasiri was a Mamluk who eventually ushered in Seljuq dynastic rule in Baghdad after attempting a failed rebellion. When the later Abbasids regained military control over Iraq, they also relied on the Ghilman as their warriors. Under Saladin and the Ayyubids of Egypt, the power of the Mamluks increased and they claimed

2448-753: The Church of the Holy Sepulchre as envoys, he threatened Pope Julius II that if he did not check Manuel I of Portugal in his depredations on the Indian Sea, he would destroy all Christian holy places. The rulers of Gujarat in India and Yemen also turned for help to the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. They wanted a fleet to be armed in the Red Sea that could protect their important trading sea routes from Portuguese attacks. Jeddah

2550-512: The Egyptians . The "Mamluk/­Ghulam Phe­nom­enon", as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specific warrior class, was of great political importance; for one thing, it endured for nearly 1,000 years, from the 9th century to the early 19th century. Over time, Mamluks became a powerful military knightly class in various Muslim societies that were controlled by dynastic Arab rulers. Particularly in Egypt and Syria , but also in

2652-703: The Ilkhanate at the Battle of Ain Jalut . They had earlier fought the western European Christian Crusaders in 1154–1169 and 1213–1221, effectively driving them out of Egypt and the Levant. In 1302 the Mamluk Sultanate formally expelled the last Crusaders from the Levant, ending the era of the Crusades. While Mamluks were purchased as property, their status was above ordinary slaves, who were not allowed to carry weapons or perform certain tasks. In places such as Egypt, from

2754-685: The Kingdom of Hejaz . The United Kingdom invaded and took control in 1882. In 1914, the Ottoman Empire connection was ended and Britain established a protectorate called the Sultanate of Egypt . Upon the conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, the country was governed as an Ottoman province . The Ottoman Porte (government) was content to permit local rule to remain in

2856-854: The Muslims in Spain , who were suffering after the Catholic Reconquista , by threatening the Christians in Syria, but he had little effect in Spain. He died in 1496, several hundred thousand ducats in debt to the great trading families of the Republic of Venice . Vasco da Gama in 1497 sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and pushed his way east across the Indian Ocean to the shores of Malabar and Kozhikode . There he attacked

2958-474: The Nile was much felt. The conclusion in 1838 of a commercial treaty with Turkey, negotiated by Henry Bulwer , struck a death blow to the system of monopolies, though the application of the treaty to Egypt was delayed for some years. Another notable fact in the economic progress of the country was the development of the cultivation of cotton in the Delta in 1822 and onwards. The cotton grown had been brought from

3060-401: The Ottoman Empire , Levant , Mesopotamia , and India, mamluks held political and military power. In some cases, they attained the rank of sultan , while in others they held regional power as emirs or beys . Most notably, Mamluk factions seized the sultanate centered on Egypt and Syria , and controlled it as the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). The Mamluk Sultanate famously defeated

3162-653: The Red Sea , and secure the rich gold mines which he believed to exist in Sennar . He also saw in the campaign a means of getting rid of his disaffected troops, and of obtaining a sufficient number of captives to form the nucleus of the new army. The forces destined for this service were led by Ismail, the youngest son of Muhammad Ali. They consisted of between 4000 and 5000 men, being Albanians, Turks and Egyptians. They left Cairo in July 1820. The Funj Sultanate of Nubia submitted without

Egyptian Olympic Committee - Misplaced Pages Continue

3264-575: The Sennar as a base for their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan of Sennar informed Muhammad Ali that he was unable to comply with a demand to expel the Mamluks. In response, the Pasha sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamluks, and reclaim it for Egypt. The Pasha's forces received the submission of the Kashif, dispersed the Dunqulah Mamluks, conquered Kordofan , and accepted Sennar's surrender from

3366-483: The Turco-Egyptian Sudan by Maho Bey and the organization of the new industry from which in a few years Muhammad Ali was enabled to extract considerable revenues. Efforts were made to promote education and the study of medicine. To European merchants, on whom he was dependent for the sale of his exports, Muhammad Ali showed much favor and under his influence, the port of Alexandria again rose into importance. It

3468-492: The 870s. It included the systematic training of young slaves in military and martial skills. The Mamluk system is considered to have been a small-scale experiment of al-Muwaffaq , to combine the slaves' efficiency as warriors with improved reliability. This recent interpretation seems to have been accepted. After the fragmentation of the Abbasid Empire, military slaves, known as either Mamluks or Ghilman, were used throughout

3570-509: The Abbasid caliphs, especially al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842). By the end of the 9th century, such slave warriors had become the dominant element in the military. Conflict between the Ghilman and the population of Baghdad prompted the caliph al-Muʿtaṣim to move his capital to the city of Samarra , but this did not succeed in calming tensions. The caliph al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by some of these slave soldiers in 861 (see Anarchy at Samarra ). Since

3672-469: The Egyptian sultan as-Salih Ayyub died, the power passed briefly to his son al-Muazzam Turanshah and then his favorite wife Shajar al-Durr , a Turk according to most historians, while others say she was an Armenian . She took control with Mamluk support and launched a counterattack against the French. Troops of the Bahri commander Baibars defeated Louis's troops. The king delayed his retreat too long and

3774-727: The Greek irregular bands, having largely soundly beaten the Porte's troops, had finally met a worthy foe in Ibrahim's disciplined troops. The history of the events that led up to the battle of Navarino and the liberation of Greece is told elsewhere; the withdrawal of the Egyptians from the Morea was ultimately due to the action of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington , who early in August 1828 appeared before Alexandria and induced

3876-599: The Ilkhanids and their Christian allies at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299. Soon after that the Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanate again in 1303/1304 and 1312. Finally, the Ilkhanids and the Mamluks signed a treaty of peace in 1323. By the late fourteenth century, the majority of the Mamluk ranks were made up of Circassians from the North Caucasus region, whose young males had been frequently captured for slavery. In 1382

3978-484: The Islamic world as the basis of military power. The Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171) of Egypt had forcibly taken adolescent male Armenians, Turks , Sudanese, and Copts from their families to be trained as slave soldiers. They formed the bulk of their military, and the rulers selected prized slaves to serve in their administration. The powerful vizier Badr al-Jamali , for example, was a Mamluk from Armenia . In Iran and Iraq,

4080-527: The Mamluks defeated the Turkish forces in several clashes. in June the rival parties concluded an agreement by which Muhammad Ali , (appointed as governor of Egypt on 26 March 1806), was to be removed and authority returned to the Mamluks. However, they were again unable to capitalize on this opportunity due to discord between factions. Muhammad Ali retained his authority. Muhammad Ali knew that he would have to deal with

4182-479: The Mamluks if he wanted to control Egypt. They were still the feudal owners of Egypt and their land was still the source of wealth and power. However, the economic strain of sustaining the military manpower necessary to defend the Mamluks's system from the Europeans and Turks would eventually weaken them to the point of collapse. On 1 March 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all of the leading Mamluks to his palace to celebrate

Egyptian Olympic Committee - Misplaced Pages Continue

4284-477: The Mamluks, who acted semi-autonomously as regional atabegs . The Mamluks increasingly became involved in the internal court politics of the kingdom itself as various factions used them as allies. In June 1249, the Seventh Crusade under Louis IX of France landed in Egypt and took Damietta . After the Egyptian troops retreated at first, the sultan had more than 50 commanders hanged as deserters . When

4386-630: The Olympic Values before they participate in the Olympic Games. This Olympics -related organization article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about sports in Egypt is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Khedivate of Egypt The Khedivate of Egypt ( Arabic : الْخُدَيْوِيَّةُ الْمِصْرِيَّةُ or خُدَيْوِيَّةُ مِصْرَ , Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [xedeˈwejjet mɑsˤɾ] ; Ottoman Turkish : خدیویت مصر Hıdiviyet-i Mısır )

4488-419: The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers against Britain and France. Britain now removed the nominal role of Constantinople, proclaimed a Sultanate of Egypt and abolished the Khedivate on 5 November 1914. Abbas II , who supported the Central Powers and was in Vienna for a state visit, was deposed from the Khedivate throne in his absence by the enforcement of the British military authorities in Cairo and

4590-435: The Ottoman Empire, which captured Constantinople later that year, causing great rejoicings in Muslim Egypt. However, under the reign of Khushqadam , Egypt began a struggle with the Ottoman sultanate. In 1467, sultan Qaitbay offended the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II , whose brother was poisoned. Bayezid II seized Adana , Tarsus and other places within Egyptian territory, but was eventually defeated. Qaitbay also tried to help

4692-499: The Ottomans. Mameluk Egyptian sultan Al-Ghawri was charged by Selim I with giving the Persian envoys passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. To appease him, Al-Ghawri placed in confinement the Venetian merchants then in Syria and Egypt, but after a year released them. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim attacked the bey of Dulkadirids , as Egypt's vassal had stood aloof, and sent his head to Al-Ghawri. Now secure against Persia, in 1516 he formed

4794-445: The Ottomans. However, the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position after his defeat. By this time new slave recruits were introduced from Georgia in the Caucasus. In 1798, the ruling Directory of the Republic of France authorised a campaign in "The Orient" to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. To this end, Napoleon Bonaparte led an Armée d'Orient to Egypt. The French defeated

4896-500: The Portuguese viceroy's son Lourenço de Almeida . But, in the following year, the Portuguese won the Battle of Diu and wrested the port city of Diu from the Gujarat Sultanate . Some years after, Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Aden , and Egyptian troops suffered disaster from the Portuguese in Yemen. Al-Ghawri fitted out a new fleet to punish the enemy and protect the Indian trade. Before it could exert much power, Egypt had lost its sovereignty. The Ottoman Empire took over Egypt and

4998-407: The Red Sea, together with Mecca and all its Arabian interests. The Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II was engaged in warfare in southern Europe when a new era of hostility with Egypt began in 1501. It arose out of the relations with the Safavid dynasty in Persia . Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to the Republic of Venice via Syria, inviting Venice to ally with Persia and recover its territory taken by

5100-442: The Sudan, was sent to the Sudanese capital, Khartoum , with orders to evacuate its minority of European and Egyptian inhabitants. Instead of evacuating the city, Gordon prepared for a siege and held out from 1884 to 1885. However, Khartoum eventually fell, and he was killed. The British Gordon Relief Expedition was delayed by several battles and was thus unable to reach Khartoum and save Gordon. The fall of Khartoum resulted in

5202-442: The Sultan to allow them to negotiate for a cease-fire, and a return to their homeland Georgia. The Russian ambassador in Constantinople refused however to intervene, because of nationalist unrest in Georgia that might have been encouraged by a Mamluk return. In 1805, the population of Cairo rebelled. This provided a chance for the Mamluks to seize power, but internal friction prevented them from exploiting this opportunity. In 1806,

SECTION 50

#1733085111722

5304-404: The barracks of the Citadel of Cairo . Because of their isolated social status (no social ties or political affiliations) and their austere military training, they were trusted to be loyal to their rulers. When their training was completed, they were discharged, but remained attached to the patron who had purchased them. Mamluks relied on the help of their patron for career advancement, and likewise

5406-416: The confiscation, begun in 1808, of almost all the lands belonging to private individuals, who were forced to accept instead inadequate pensions. By this revolutionary method of land nationalization Muhammad Ali became proprietor of nearly all the soil of Egypt, an iniquitous measure against which the Egyptians had no remedy. The pasha also attempted to reorganize his troops on European lines, but this led to

5508-427: The country. A British naval bombardment of Alexandria had little effect on the opposition which led to the landing of a British expeditionary force at both ends of the Suez Canal in August 1882. The British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir in September and took control of the country putting Tewfiq back in control. The purpose of the invasion had been to restore political stability to Egypt under

5610-474: The declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between 600 and 700 Mamluks paraded for this purpose in Cairo . Muhammad Ali's forces killed almost all of these near the Al-Azab gates in a narrow road down from Mukatam Hill. This ambush came to be known as the Massacre of the Citadel . According to contemporary reports, only one Mamluk, whose name is given variously as Amim (also Amyn), or Heshjukur (a Besleney ), survived when he forced his horse to leap from

5712-496: The defeat of the French, the Porte assigned Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha as the new Wāli (governor) of Egypt, tasking him to kill or imprison the surviving Egyptian Mamluk beys . Many of these were freed by or fled with the British, while others held Minya between Upper and Lower Egypt . Amid these disturbances, Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha attempted to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks (soldiers) without pay. This led to rioting that drove Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha from Cairo. During

5814-400: The deposition of the last khedive Abbas II on 5 November 1914 and the establishment of a British protectorate , with the installation of sultan Hussein Kamel on 19 December 1914. By Isma'il's reign, the Egyptian government, headed by the minister Nubar Pasha , had become dependent on Britain and France for a healthy economy. Isma'il attempted to end this European dominance, while at

5916-487: The early 19th сentury the Egyptians tried multiple attempts to take full control of the Nile River and with that take control of the Horn of Africa which was a Key route to enter the Southern Arabian peninsula. After failing multiple times to take control of the Bogos / Hamassien however these attempted invasions were repelled by the emperor at the time Tewedros . Sa'id ruled for only nine years, and his nephew Isma'il , another grandson of Muhammad Ali, became wali. In 1866

6018-404: The early 21st century, historians have suggested that there was a distinction between the Mamluk system and the (earlier) Ghilman system, in Samarra , which did not have specialized training and was based on pre-existing Central Asian hierarchies. Adult slaves and freemen both served as warriors in the Ghilman system. The Mamluk system developed later, after the return of the caliphate to Baghdad in

6120-425: The empire he had so laboriously built up might at any time have to be defended by force of arms against his master Sultan Mahmud II , whose whole policy had been directed to curbing the power of too-ambitious vassals, and who was under the influence of the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt, notably Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha , the grand vizier , who had never forgiven his humiliation in Egypt in 1803. Mahmud also

6222-400: The ensuing turmoil, the Porte sent Muhammad Ali Pasha to Egypt. However, Muhammad Ali seized control of Egypt , declared himself ruler and quickly consolidated an independent local power base. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805 the Porte officially recognised Muhammad Ali as Wāli of Egypt. Demonstrating his grander ambitions, Muhammad Ali Pasha claimed for himself

SECTION 60

#1733085111722

6324-469: The entire Nile including its diverse sources, and over the whole African coast of the Red Sea . This, together with rumours about rich raw material and fertile soil, led Ismail to expansive policies directed against the Ethiopian Empire under Yohannes IV . In 1865, the Ottoman Sublime Porte ceded Habesh Eyalet to Isma'il, with Massawa and Suakin at the Red Sea as the main cities of that province. This province, which neighboured Ethiopia, first consisted of

6426-507: The fact that they were deployed for fighting in wars on behalf of several Islamic kingdoms as slave-soldiers. By 1200, Saladin 's brother al-ʿĀdil succeeded in securing control over the whole empire by defeating and killing or imprisoning his brothers and nephews in turn. With each victory, al-ʿĀdil incorporated the defeated Mamluk retinue into his own. This process was repeated at al-ʿĀdil's death in 1218, and at his son al-Kāmil 's death in 1238. The Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by

6528-458: The fleets that carried freight and Muslim pilgrims from India to the Red Sea , and struck terror into the potentates all around. Various engagements took place. Cairo's Mamluk sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri was affronted at the attacks around the Red Sea, the loss of tolls and traffic, the indignities to which Mecca and its port were subjected, and above all for losing one of his ships. He vowed vengeance upon Portugal, first sending monks from

6630-587: The following centuries, the Mamluks ruled discontinuously, with an average span of seven years. The Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanids a second time in the First Battle of Homs and began to drive them back east. In the process they consolidated their power over Syria, fortified the area, and formed mail routes and diplomatic connections among the local princes. Baibars' troops attacked Acre in 1263, captured Caesarea in 1265, and took Antioch in 1268. Mamluks also defeated new Ilkhanate attacks in Syria in 1271 and 1281 (the Second Battle of Homs ). They were defeated by

6732-445: The hand of Israeli judoka Or Sasson , who had defeated El Shahaby. In August 2016, the Disciplinary Committee of the International Olympic Committee issued a "severe reprimand" to El Shehaby for behavior violating "the rules of fair play and against the spirit of friendship embodied in the Olympic Values", and requested that the Egyptian Olympic Committee in the future make certain that all Egyptian athletes are properly educated as to

6834-527: The hands of the Mamluks , the Egyptian military led by Circassian - Turkic leaders who had held power in Egypt since the 13th century. Save for military expeditions to crush Mamluk uprisings seeking to reestablish the independent Egyptian sultanate, the Ottomans largely ignored Egyptian affairs until the French campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798. Between 1799 and 1801, the Porte, working at times with France's main enemy, Great Britain, undertook various campaigns to restore Ottoman rule in Egypt. By August 1801,

6936-428: The higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), ruling the self-proclaimed (but not recognised) Khedivate of Egypt. He murdered the remaining Mamluk beys in 1811, solidifying his control of Egypt. He is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt because of the dramatic reforms he instituted in the military, agricultural, economic and cultural spheres. During Muhammad Ali's absence in Arabia his representative at Cairo had completed

7038-578: The largest number of mamluks, but lesser amirs also owned their own troops. Many Mamluks were appointed or promoted to high positions throughout the empire, including army command. At first their status was non-hereditary. Sons of Mamluks were prevented from following their father's role in life. However, over time, in places such as Egypt, the Mamluk forces became linked to existing power structures and gained significant amounts of influence on those powers. In Egypt, studies have shown that mamluks from Georgia retained their native language , were aware of

7140-401: The last Funj sultan, Badi VII . According to Eric Chaney and Lisa Blades, the reliance on mamluks by Muslim rulers had a profound impact on the Arab world's political development. They argue that, because European rulers had to rely on local elites for military forces, lords and bourgeois acquired the necessary bargaining power to push for representative government. Muslim rulers did not face

7242-411: The most dangerous opposition coming from the army. A large military demonstration in September 1881 forced the Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss his Prime Minister. In April 1882 France and Great Britain sent warships to Alexandria to bolster the Khedive amidst a turbulent climate, spreading fear of invasion throughout the country. By June Egypt was in the hands of nationalists opposed to European domination of

7344-527: The new "Province of Eastern Sudan and the Red Sea Coast", Werner Munzinger Pasha. In October 1875 Ismail's army tried to occupy the adjacent highlands of Hamasien , which were then tributary to the Ethiopian Emperor, and suffered defeat at the Battle of Gundet . In March 1876, Ismail's army tried again and suffered a second dramatic defeat by Yohannes' army in the Battle of Gura . Ismail's son Hassan

7446-539: The new force was demonstrated in the suppression of an 1823 revolt of the Albanians in Cairo by six disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more troubled with military mutinies. His foresight was rewarded by the invitation of the sultan to help him in the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offering as reward the pashaliks of the Morea and of Syria. Muhammad Ali had already, in 1821, been appointed by him governor of Crete , which he had occupied with

7548-588: The pasha, by no means sorry to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of bombardment, to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his army. But for the action of European powers, it is suspected by many that the Ottoman Empire might have defeated the Greeks. Although Muhammad Ali had only been granted the title of wali , he proclaimed himself khedive , or hereditary viceroy, early on during his rule. The Ottoman government, although irritated, did nothing until Muhammad Ali invaded Ottoman-ruled Syria in 1831 . The governorship of Syria had been promised to him by

7650-492: The patron's reputation and power depended on his recruits. A Mamluk was "bound by a strong esprit de corps to his peers in the same household". Mamluks lived within their garrisons and mainly spent their time with each other. Their entertainments included sporting events such as archery competitions and presentations of mounted combat skills at least once a week. The intensive and rigorous training of each new recruit helped ensure continuity of Mamluk practices. Sultans owned

7752-558: The politics of the Caucasus region , and received frequent visits from their parents or other relatives. In addition, they sent gifts to family members or gave money to build useful structures (a defensive tower, or even a church) in their native villages. The practice of recruiting slaves as soldiers in the Muslim world and turning them into Mamluks began in Baghdad during the 9th century CE, and

7854-558: The polity occupied the Emirate of Harar . In 1867, the Ottoman sultan acknowledged Isma'il's use of the title khedive . In 1874, Ismail Pasha ordered the deputation of warships to patrol Tadjoura whereafter for ten years, the Khedivate was established from Zeila to Berbera , until their withdrawal in April 1884 and failed attempts to establish themselves beyond Berbera and the eastern littoral of Somalia. Ismail dreamt of expanding his realm across

7956-494: The proclamation of an Islamic state , ruled over first by the Mahdi and then by his successor Khalifa Abdullahi . In 1896, during the reign of Tewfik's son, Abbas II , a massive Anglo-Egyptian force, under the command of General Herbert Kitchener , began the conquest of the Sudan not long after the death of the Mahdi , Muhammad Ahmad , to typhus . The Mahdists were defeated in the battles of Abu Hamed and Atbara . The campaign

8058-510: The ranks of slave-soldiers . Originally the Mamluks were slaves of Turkic origins from the Eurasian Steppe , but the institution of military slavery spread to include Circassians , Abkhazians , Georgians , Armenians , Russians , and Hungarians , as well as peoples from the Balkans such as Albanians , Greeks , and South Slavs ( see Saqaliba ). They also recruited from

8160-625: The remaining French forces of General Jacques-François Menou withdrew from Egypt. The period between 1801 and 1805 was, effectively, a three-way civil war in Egypt between the Egyptian Mamluks, the Ottoman Turks, and Albanian troops the Ottoman Porte dispatched from Rumelia (the Empire's European province), under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha , to restore the Empire's authority. Following

8262-464: The same time pursuing an aggressive domestic policy. Under Isma'il, 112 canals and 400 bridges were built in Egypt. Because of his efforts to gain economic independence from the European powers, Isma'il became unpopular with many British and French diplomats, including Evelyn Baring and Alfred Milner , who claimed that he was "ruining Egypt." In 1869, the completion of the Suez Canal gave Britain

8364-510: The second civil war. Meanwhile, historians agree that the massive implementation of a slave military class such as the Mamluks appears to have developed in Islamic societies beginning with the 9th-century Abbasid Caliphate based in Baghdad , under the Abbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim . Until the 1990s, it was widely believed that the earliest Mamluks were known as Ghilman or Ghulam (another broadly synonymous term for slaves) and were bought by

8466-508: The sultan, Mahmud II , for his assistance during the Greek War of Independence , but the title was not granted to him after the war. This caused the Ottomans, allied with the British, to counter-attack in 1839 . In 1840, the British bombarded Beirut and an Anglo-Ottoman force landed and seized Acre. The Egyptian army was forced to retreat back home, and Syria again became an Ottoman province. As

8568-545: The sultanate in 1250, ruling as the Mamluk Sultanate . Throughout the Islamic world, rulers continued to use enslaved warriors until the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire 's devşirme , or "gathering" of young slaves for the Janissaries , lasted until the 17th century. Regimes based on Mamluk power thrived in such Ottoman provinces as the Levant and Egypt until the 19th century. Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo, Mamluks were purchased while still young males. They were raised in

8670-408: The walls of the citadel. During the following week an estimated 3,000 Mamluks and their relatives were killed throughout Egypt, by Muhammad's regular troops. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 Mamluks died. Despite Muhammad Ali's destruction of the Mamluks in Egypt, a party of them escaped and fled south into what is now Sudan . In 1811, these Mamluks established a state at Dunqulah in

8772-580: Was already planning reforms borrowed from the West, and Muhammad Ali, who had had plenty of opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare, was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet and an army on European lines, partly as a precaution, partly as an instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes of ambition. Before the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence in 1821, he had already expended much time and energy in organizing

8874-520: Was also under Muhammad Ali's encouragement that the overland transit of goods from Europe to India via Egypt was resumed. In 1820, Muhammad Ali gave orders to commence the conquest of Ottoman Tripolitania . He first sent an expedition westward in February, which conquered and annexed the Siwa Oasis . Ali's intentions for Sudan were to extend his rule southward, capture the valuable caravan trade bound for

8976-752: Was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire , established and ruled by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty following the defeat and expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte 's forces which brought an end to the short-lived French occupation of Lower Egypt . The Khedivate of Egypt had also expanded to control present-day Sudan , South Sudan , Eritrea , Djibouti , northwestern Somalia , northeastern Ethiopia , Lebanon , Jordan , Palestine , Syria , Greece , Cyprus , southern and central Turkey , in addition to parts from Libya , Chad , Central African Republic , Democratic Republic of Congo , and Uganda , as well as northwestern Saudi Arabia , parts of Yemen and

9078-535: Was assassinated on 14 June 1800. Command of the Army in Egypt fell to Jacques-François Menou . Isolated and out of supplies, Menou surrendered to the British in 1801. After the departure of French troops in 1801 the Mamluks continued their struggle for independence; this time against the Ottoman Empire. In 1803, Mamluk leaders Ibrahim Bey and Osman Bey al-Bardisi wrote to the Russian consul-general, asking him to mediate with

9180-507: Was banned from returning to Egypt. He was succeeded by his uncle Hussein Kamel , who took the title of Sultan on 19 December 1914. During the khedivate, the standard form of Egyptian currency was the Egyptian pound . Because of the gradual European domination of the Egyptian economy, the khedivate adopted the gold standard in 1885. Although the adoption of modern, Western industrial techniques

9282-742: Was begun under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century, the policy was continued under the khedives. Machines were imported into Egypt and by the abolition of the khedivate in 1914, the textile industry had become the most prominent one in the nation. In 1877 the Egyptian military contained: This amounted to 58,000 troops in the regular army; there were also 5,000 military and municipal police and various other irregular formations. 30°03′N 31°13′E  /  30.050°N 31.217°E  / 30.050; 31.217 Mamluk Mamluk or Mamaluk ( / ˈ m æ m l uː k / ; Arabic : مملوك , romanized :  mamlūk (singular), مماليك , mamālīk (plural); translated as "one who

9384-401: Was burnt to death by Nimr, the makk (king) of Shendi . The defterdar, a man infamous for his cruelty, assumed the command of those provinces and exacted terrible retribution from the inhabitants. Khartoum was founded at this time, and in the following years, Egyptian rule was greatly extended and control of the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa obtained. Muhammad Ali understood that

9486-707: Was captured by the Ethiopians and only released after a large ransom. This was followed by a long cold war, only finishing in 1884 with the Anglo-Egyptian-Ethiopian Hewett Treaty , when Bogos was given back to Ethiopia. The Red Sea Province created by Ismail and his governor Munzinger Pasha was taken over by the Kingdom of Italy shortly thereafter and became the territorial basis for the Colony of Eritrea (proclaimed in 1890). In 1882 opposition to European control led to growing tension amongst native notables,

9588-514: Was captured by the Mamluks in March 1250. He agreed to pay a ransom of 400,000 livres tournois to gain release (150,000 livres were never paid). Because of political pressure for a male leader, Shajar married the Mamluk commander, Aybak . He was assassinated in his bath. In the ensuing power struggle, viceregent Qutuz , also a Mamluk, took over. He formally founded the Mamluke Sultanate and

9690-567: Was concluded with the Anglo-Egyptian victory in the Battle of Omdurman , the Mahdist capital. Caliph Abdallahi ibn Muhammad was hunted down and killed in 1899 in the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat , and Anglo-Egyptian rule was restored to the Sudan. Abbas II became very hostile to the British as his reign drew on, and, by 1911, was considered by Lord Kitchener to be a "wicked little Khedive" worthy of deposition. In 1914, when World War I broke out,

9792-460: Was forced to abdicate in 1412. In 1421, Egypt was attacked by the Kingdom of Cyprus , but the Egyptians forced the Cypriotes to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan Barsbay . During Barsbay's reign, Egypt's population became greatly reduced from what it had been a few centuries before; it had one-fifth the number of towns. Al-Ashraf came to power in 1453. He had friendly relations with

9894-586: Was seen as deliverance from the Mameluks. The Mamluk Sultanate survived in Egypt until 1517, when Selim captured Cairo on 20 January. Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence, but as vassals of the Ottomans. In 1768, Ali Bey Al-Kabir declared independence from

9996-406: Was soon fortified as a harbor of refuge so Arabia and the Red Sea were protected. But the fleets in the Indian Ocean were still at the mercy of the enemy. The last Mamluk sultan, Al-Ghawri, fitted out a fleet of 50 vessels. As Mamluks had little expertise in naval warfare, he sought help from the Ottomans to develop this naval enterprise. In 1508 at the Battle of Chaul , the Mamluk fleet defeated

10098-580: Was started by the Abbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim . From the 900s through the 1200s, medieval Egypt was controlled by dynastic foreign rulers, notably the Ikhshidids , Fatimids , and Ayyubids . Throughout these dynasties, thousands of Mamluk slave-soldiers and guards continued to be used and even took high offices. This increasing level of influence among the Mamluks worried the Ayyubids in particular. Eventually,

10200-478: Was succeeded by his nephew Abbas I , who undid many of Muhammad Ali's accomplishments. Abbas was assassinated by two of his slaves in 1854, and Muhammad Ali's fourth son, Sa'id , succeeded him. Sa'id brought back many of his father's policies but otherwise had an unremarkable reign. Ismail Pasha replaced Turkish with Arabic as the administrative and elite language, further reducing Turkish influence in Egypt and enhancing Egypt’s modernization and independence. In

10302-470: Was undermined in a rebellion led by his war minister, Urabi Pasha , in 1882. Urabi took advantage of violent riots in Alexandria to seize control of the government and temporarily depose Tewfik. British naval forces shelled and captured Alexandria, and an expeditionary force under General Sir Garnet Wolseley was formed in England. The British army landed in Egypt soon afterwards and defeated Urabi's army in

10404-522: Was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz . After taking Damascus, Hulagu demanded that Qutuz surrender Egypt. Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, with Baibars' help, mobilized his troops. When Möngke Khan died in action against the Southern Song , Hulagu pulled the majority of his forces out of Syria to attend the kurultai (funeral ceremony). He left his lieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa , in charge with

#721278