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135-549: Eesti Päevaleht (Estonia Daily) is a major daily Estonian newspaper, from the same publishers as the weekly Eesti Ekspress . Another newspaper under the same name is published weekly in Stockholm , Sweden . Eesti Päevaleht was founded on 5 June 1995, when the newspapers Hommikuleht , Päevaleht (previously Noorte Hääl ), and Rahva Hääl were merged into a single publication. On 29 September 1995, Eesti Päevaleht merged with Eesti Sõnumid . In May 2011,

270-471: A Socialist Revolutionary publication called Dyelo Naroda , No. 5 called for Russia to be transformed into a federal state along the lines of the United States . Specifically, separate constituent units inside of this federal state would be created for the various regions and ethnic groups of Russia (such as Little Russia , Georgia , Siberia , and Turkestan ). The Soviet Russia that took over from

405-572: A crusade to "defend the Christians of Livonia ". Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King Valdemar II unsuccessfully invaded Saaremaa . The German Livonian Brothers of the Sword , who had previously subjugated Livonians , Latgalians , and Selonians , started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over the next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of

540-504: A "correct" ethnic label to some peoples (e.g. the mixed Tajik-Uzbek Sart , or the various Turkmen/Uzbek tribes along the Amu Darya ). In addition, local elites often strongly argued (and in some cases, overstated) their case and the Russians were often forced to adjudicate between them, further hindered by a lack of expert knowledge and the paucity of accurate or up-to-date ethnographic data on

675-790: A Special Committee of the Central Asian Bureau, with three sub-committees for each of what were deemed to be the main nationalities of the region (Kazakhs, Turkmen and Uzbeks), with work then exceedingly rapidly. There were initial plans to possibly keep the Khorezm and Bukhara PSRs, but it was decided in April 1924 to partition them, over the often vocal opposition of their local Communist Parties. The Khorezm CP in particular were reluctant to destroy their PSR and had to be strong-armed into voting for their own dissolution in July of that year. The Turkestan ASSR

810-548: A broader process of changes in administrative-territorial division, which also changed the boundaries of territorial units, but was not necessarily linked to national or ethnic considerations. National delimitation in the USSR was distinct from nation-building ( Russian : национальное строительство ), which typically referred to the policies and actions implemented by the government of a national territorial unit (a nation state ) after delimitation. In most cases national delimitation in

945-476: A brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia. During World War I , over 100,000 Estonian men were mobilized into the Imperial Russian Army . Of these, approximately 8,000 to 10,000 perished, and one in five suffered injuries. In the turmoil of war, ideas for establishing an Estonian national army began to take root, while the shortages and hardships on

1080-753: A campaign of terror, culminating in March 1949 with operation Priboi – the mass deportation of around 20,000 Estonians to the gulag system in Siberia. Full collectivization followed shortly after, marking a new phase of Soviet control over Estonia's economy. Simultaneously, the Soviet Union initiated Russification policies that sought to reshape Estonia's demographics and dilute its cultural identity. Large numbers of ethnic Russians and other Soviet citizens were resettled in Estonia, threatening to turn native Estonians into

1215-475: A certain degree of autonomy, national schools, and national elites. A written national language (if it had been lacking), national language planning , native-language press, and books written in the native language came with the national territory, along with cultural institutions such as theaters. The attitudes towards many ethnic minorities changed dramatically in the 1930s–1940s under the leadership of Joseph Stalin (despite his own Georgian ethnic roots) with

1350-489: A compact population. The immigration of cross-border ethnic groups and the return of non-Russian émigrés to the Soviet Union during the New Economic Policy , albeit perceived as an easy cover for espionage, were not discouraged and proceeded quite actively, contributing to nation-building. Soviet fear of foreign influence gained momentum from sporadic ethnic guerilla uprisings along the entire Soviet frontier throughout

1485-520: A major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except Tallinn, but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last maakond (county) to surrender. After the crusade, the territory of present-day south Estonia and Latvia was named Terra Mariana ; later on it became known simply as Livonia . Northern Estonia became the Danish Duchy of Estonia , while

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1620-418: A major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights. At the end of the 19th century, Russification began, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to

1755-509: A minority in their own homeland. Between 1945 and 1989, the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country dropped from 97% to 62%. The Communist Party of Estonia , dominated by ethnic Russians, acted as a mechanism for this demographic shift. Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers. Estonians faced additional hardships, as thousands were forcibly conscripted into Soviet conflicts, including

1890-463: A result, the number of nations shrunk over the decades. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, fifteen newly sovereign states adopted their own policies and laws with regard to national minorities. A number of conflicts erupted, some of them fed in part by national or ethnic tensions. In the Russian Federation, some autonomous regions became new ethnic republics. Map showing

2025-529: A single parish. By the 13th century, Estonia was divided into eight major counties – Harjumaa , Järvamaa , Läänemaa , Revala , Saaremaa , Sakala , Ugandi , and Virumaa – as well as several smaller, single-parish counties. These counties operated as independent entities and only formed loose alliances for defense against foreign threats. Estonia's culture during this period was split into two primary regions. Northern and western coastal areas maintained close connections with Scandinavia and Finland , while

2160-428: A supreme deity worshiped by the islanders of Saaremaa. Sacred groves , particularly those of oak trees, played a significant role in pagan worship practices. Christianity – both Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy – started to be introduced by foreign traders and missionaries since the 10th and 11th century, but most of the population retained their indigenous beliefs. In 1199, Pope Innocent III declared

2295-522: A trade intermediary between Novgorod and western Hanseatic cities, while Tartu filled the same role with Pskov . Many artisans' and merchants guilds were formed during the period. Protected by their stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Tallinn and Tartu often defied other rulers of the medieval Livonian Confederation . The Reformation began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by

2430-740: Is meant by a nation, some of them simply gave names when asked about ethnic group . Many groups were thought to be biologically similar, but culturally distinct. In Central Asia, many identified their "nation" as "Muslim." In other cases, geography made the difference, or even whether one lived in a town versus the countryside. Principally, however, dialects or languages formed the basis for distinguishing between various nations. The results were often contradictory and confusing. More than 150 nations were counted in Central Asia alone. Some were quickly subordinated to others, with communities which had hitherto been counted as "nations" now deemed to be simply tribes. As

2565-550: Is one of the least populous members of the European Union and NATO . Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings for quality of life , education , press freedom , digitalisation of public services and the prevalence of technology companies. The name Estonia ( Estonian : Eesti [ˈeˑstʲi] ) has been connected to Aesti , a people first mentioned by Ancient Roman historian Tacitus around 98 CE. Some modern historians believe he

2700-642: Is starkly evident in the archaeological record, with a sharp drop in the number of sites and grave finds, indicating a severe population decline and slow recovery. North Estonian coast was strategically located on the route from the Varangians to the Greeks , making Estonia a trade hub while also being both a target and starting point for many raids. Coastal Estonians, particularly Oeselians from Saaremaa , adopted Viking lifestyle. Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when in

2835-642: Is the Pulli settlement ; according to radiocarbon dating , it was settled around 11,000 years ago. The earliest human habitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to the Kunda culture . Around 5300 BCE, ceramics appear of the neolithic period, known as Narva culture . This was followed by the Comb Ceramic culture around 3900 BC, bringing early agriculture and sophisticated religious art. Starting from around 2800 BC

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2970-451: Is widely recognised as one of the most liberal in the world at that time. The Great Depression put heavy pressure on Estonia's political system, and in 1933, the right-wing Vaps movement spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency. On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, Konstantin Päts , extended a state of emergency over the entire country, under the pretext that

3105-544: The Letter of 40 intellectuals in 1980, which openly criticized Soviet policies. Most Western nations refused to recognize Estonia's annexation by the Soviet Union, maintaining that it was illegal under international law. Legal continuity of the Estonian state was preserved through the government-in-exile and the Estonian diplomatic representatives which Western governments continued to recognise. This stance drew support from

3240-508: The Corded Ware culture appeared; this included new activities like primitive farming and animal husbandry. The Comb Ceramic and Corded Ware cultures coexisted in Estonia for a millennium, before eventually blending into a Bronze Age Estonian culture. Archaeological estimates place the population within Estonian territory at a modest level, with approximately 6,000 inhabitants in 3900 BC, rising to around 10,000 by 2000 BC. The Bronze Age saw

3375-525: The Estonian Constituent Assembly was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping land reform expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly liberal constitution establishing Estonia as a parliamentary democracy. In 1924, the Soviet Union organised a communist coup attempt , which quickly failed. Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925,

3510-591: The Estonian War of Independence . The Red Army came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, the Estonian Army , led by Johan Laidoner , went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few weeks. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in the spring of 1919, the Estonian army, in co-operation with White Russian forces, advanced into Russia and Latvia . In June 1919, Estonia defeated

3645-514: The Forest Brothers . By mid-July, the Forest Brothers' uprising succeeded in liberating South Estonia ahead of the advancing German army, allowing local institutions of the pre-war Republic of Estonia to resume operation. The USSR fully evacuated Tallinn by late August, suffering massive losses in the process. A puppet Estonian Self-Administration was established, and occupied Estonia

3780-694: The German Landeswehr which had attempted to dominate Latvia, restoring power to the government of Kārlis Ulmanis there. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a major offensive against Narva in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia. In April 1919,

3915-647: The Iron Curtain . In the late 1970s, Moscow's ideological pressure intensified with a new wave of Russian immigration, and Karl Vaino , an official from Moscow who barely spoke Estonian, was appointed head of the Communist Party of Estonia . Estonian dissidents, responding to this escalating Russification, grew increasingly vocal, with notable protests such as the Baltic Appeal to the United Nations in 1979, and

4050-586: The Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Kirghiz ASSR, Kirgizistan ASSR on the map), which was created on 26 August 1920 in the territory roughly coinciding with the northern part of today's Kazakhstan (at this time Kazakhs were referred to as "Kyrgyz" and what are now the Kyrgyz were deemed a sub-group of the Kazakhs and referred to as Kara-Kyrgyz i.e. "black Kyrgyz"). There were also

4185-581: The Learned Estonian Society and other scientific societies, supported Estonian-language education and founded the first newspapers in the Estonian language. They also began to value and collect the Estonian folklore , including surviving pre-Christian myths and traditions. Another sign of a rising Estonian national consciousness was a mass movement in South Estonia to convert to Eastern Orthodoxy in

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4320-670: The Novgorod Slavs who migrated to the area, expanding westward. Kievan Rus attempted to subjugate Estonia in the 11th century, with Yaroslav the Wise capturing Tartu around 1030. This foothold lasted until 1061 when an Estonian tribe, the Sosols, destroyed it. In 1187, Estonians, Curonians and Karelians sacked Sigtuna , which was a major city of Sweden at the time. In the early centuries AD, Estonia's first political and administrative subdivisions began to take shape. The primary units were

4455-511: The October Revolution , which recognized equality and sovereignty of all the peoples of Russia; their right for free self-determination, up to and including secession and creation of an independent state; freedom of religion; and free development of national minorities and ethnic groups on the territory of Russia. The Soviet Union (or more formally USSR – the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)

4590-630: The Republic of Estonia , is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe . It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland , to the west by the sea across from Sweden , to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia . The territory of Estonia consists of the mainland , the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa , and over 2,300 other islands and islets on

4725-467: The Soviet Union within the boundaries of the former Russian Empire , the Bolshevik government began the process of national delimitation and nation building, which lasted through the 1920s and most of the 1930s. The project attempted to build nations out of the numerous ethnic groups in the Soviet Union. Defining a nation or politically conscious ethnic group was in itself a politically charged issue in

4860-558: The Soviet–Afghan War and the Chernobyl disaster cleanup. The Soviet regime seized all industry and centralized agriculture, emphasizing heavy industrial development that often neglected local well-being and caused significant environmental damage. The military presence was pervasive, with closed military zones occupying 2% of the country, while entry into coastal areas required special permits, rendering Estonia partially isolated from

4995-571: The Stimson Doctrine , which denied recognition of territorial changes enacted through force, and appeared on USA-made maps, which carried disclaimers affirming non-recognition of the 1940 Soviet annexation. In 1980, Tallinn hosted the sailing events for the Moscow Olympics , an occasion that triggered international boycotts in protest of both the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the occupation of

5130-631: The Ukrainian SSR , no particular territorial entity was created (though a Jewish Autonomous Oblast was established in the Russian Far East in 1934). For the largely Yiddish-speaking Jews in these areas, policies were implemented such as the designation of Yiddish as an official language of Byelorussian SSR and a corresponding national public education system in Yiddish, along with the promotion of Yiddish literature and theatre in these areas as well as in

5265-513: The Wielbark culture and Dollkeim-Kovrovo cultures. Historical sources identify these people as Goths and Aesti . There is some speculation that the name Estonia may have originated from the Aesti tribes. In the 4th century, Gothic ruler Ermanaric claimed to have subjugated the territories corresponding to Estonia, but there is no archaeological evidence to support this. The Late Antique Little Ice Age

5400-425: The interwar period , Estonia declared neutrality at the outbreak of World War II , however the country was repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied ; first by the Soviet Union in 1940 , then Nazi Germany in 1941, and ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit ( Estonian SSR ). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation, Estonia's de jure state continuity

5535-460: The " Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty ", allowing the USSR to establish military bases in Estonia. On 14 June 1940 the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia, shooting down the airliner Kaleva . On 16 June, the USSR presented another ultimatum demanding free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance

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5670-478: The 1530s onward the regular religious services were held in Estonian. Early Estonian-language Protestant texts emerged, including Wanradt–Koell Catechism in 1535. During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of Muscovy , Sweden, and Poland–Lithuania consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order. In 1558, Tsar Ivan

5805-432: The 1840s, following a famine and a promise for being rewarded with land. By the 1850s, several leading figures were promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the political affirmation of the Estonian identity. In 1857, Johann Voldemar Jannsen started publishing one of

5940-581: The 1860s, such as a campaign to establish the Estonian language Alexander School, the founding of the Society of Estonian Literati and the Estonian Students' Society , and the first national song festival , held in 1869 in Tartu. Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language. The national epic Kalevipoeg was published in 1857, and 1870 saw the first performances of Estonian theatre . In 1878

6075-534: The 1920s and the 1930s. In many cases these groups were either widely dispersed, or these minorities were concentrated in areas already designated as the national republic for a different group, for example Poles and Jews (who were considered a nationality) represented up to a third of the population in some areas of the Ukrainian or Byelorussian SSRs or nearly half of the population in some cities and towns, yet apart from national raions , 24 of which were established in

6210-461: The 1920s. The Soviet government was particularly concerned about the loyalty of the Finnish, Polish, and German populations. However, in July 1925 the Soviet authorities felt secure enough and in order to project Soviet influence outwards, exploiting cross-border ethnic ties, granted national minorities in the border regions more privileges and national rights than those in the central regions. This policy

6345-602: The 1930s they have been organized in 10 national autonomous okrugs for the Chukotka , Koryak , Nenets , Dolgano-Nenets , Yamalo-Nenets , Khanty-Mansi , Agin-Buryat , Ust-Orda Buryat , Evenk , Komi-Permyak titular nations . Besides national republics, oblasts, and okrugs, several hundred national districts (with populations between 10,000 and 50,000) and several thousand national townships (population 500 to 5,000) were established. In some cases this policy required voluntary or forced resettlement in both directions to create

6480-573: The 20th century and the indigenous Setos were converted to Eastern Orthodoxy . Initially, the Estonian nobles who accepted baptism were able to retain their power and influence by becoming vassals of the Danish king or the church; they intermarried with newcomer Crusader familiers and over the centuries become Germanised , leading to the ethnogenesis of the Baltic Germans . The Estonian pagans rose several times against foreign Christian rule. During

6615-576: The Baltic states. Though the Olympics brought economic investments to Tallinn, many Estonian exiles and Western nations condemned the events held on occupied soil. The introduction of perestroika by the Soviet government in 1987 reopened the possibility for political activism in Estonia, sparking the Singing Revolution , a peaceful movement towards independence. One of the first major acts of resistance

6750-502: The Communists took power in 1917 and created the Soviet Union it was decided to divide Central Asia into ethnically based republics in a process known as National Territorial Delimitation (NTD). This was in line with Communist theory that nationalism was a necessary step on the path towards an eventually communist society , and Joseph Stalin's definition of a nation as being "a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on

6885-710: The Estonian SSR to the Russian SFSR . Following the renewed Soviet occupation of Estonia, thousands of Estonians once again joined the Forest Brothers to resist Soviet rule. This armed resistance was particularly intense in the immediate post-war years, but Soviet forces eventually wore it down through relentless attrition tactics, bringing an end to organized armed resistance by the 1960s. The Soviet regime also intensified its policy of collectivisation , forcing Estonian farmers to abandon private agriculture and join state-run collectives. When locals resisted, authorities launched

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7020-648: The Estonian borders again in early 1944, heightening fears of renewed Soviet occupation. The Estonian Self-Administration, with the support of major pre-war political parties and acting president Jüri Uluots , declared a general mobilization, drafting 38,000 men into the Waffen-SS . With significant support from Estonian units, German forces managed to halt the Soviet advance for six months in fierce battles near Narva . The Soviet Air Force launched extensive bombing raids on Tallinn and other Estonian cities, resulting in severe damage and loss of life. From July to September,

7155-587: The Estonian public education system appeared in the 1680s, largely due to efforts of Bengt Forselius , who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian. The population of Estonia grew rapidly until the Great Famine of 1695–97 in which 70,000–75,000 people died – about 20% of the population. During the Great Northern War , Peter the Great of Russia launched another invasion of Estonia in 1700. By

7290-522: The Estonian resistance was Lembitu , an elder of Sakala County , but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the Battle of St. Matthew's Day , where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at Lindanise , defeated the Estonians in the Battle of Lyndanisse , and started conquering Northern Estonia. The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were repelled by the Oeselians. In 1223,

7425-603: The Livonian Constitutions re-established Livonia as a Catholic bishopric, marking a turning point in religious influence in the region. Jesuit influence flourished, establishing institutions such as the Collegium Derpatense in Tartu, where Estonian-language catechisms were published to support local missions. Despite the Jesuits' efforts, including extensive publishing and education initiatives, their presence in Tartu

7560-399: The Livonian Order. Protestant preaching began actively in Tallinn in 1524, leading the town council to align with the Reformation by the following year. Similar events unfolded in Tartu, where tensions arose with Catholic Bishop Johann Blankenfeld, resulting in iconoclastic riots that damaged Catholic churches and monasteries in both cities. By the late 1520s, most Estonian towns had embraced

7695-461: The RSFSR in 1945 and Volga German ASSR absorbed into RSFSR in 1941). The first population census of the USSR in 1926 listed 176 distinct nationalities. Eliminating excessive detail (e.g., four ethnic groups for Jews and five ethnic groups for Georgians) and omitting very small ethnic groups, the list was condensed into 69 nationalities. These 69 nationalities lived in 45 nationally delimited territories, including 16 Union-level republics (SSR) for

7830-399: The Reformation, although Catholic influence remained stronger in Viljandi, Haapsalu , and Vana-Pärnu. Unlike the cities, rural areas were slower to adopt Protestantism, with Catholic influence persisting among local nobility and peasants well into the 1530s. With the Reformation, church services began to be conducted in vernacular language, which initially meant Low German , but already from

7965-407: The Russian Empire did not fully meet these criteria. Not only did cultural, linguistic, religious and tribal diversities make the process difficult, but also the lack of a political consciousness of ethnicity among the people was a major obstacle. The process relied on the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia , adopted by the Bolshevik government on 15 November 1917, immediately after

8100-432: The Russian Empire in 1917 was not a nation-state, nor was the Soviet leadership committed to turning their country into such a state. In the early Soviet period, even voluntary assimilation was actively discouraged, and the promotion of the national self-consciousness of the non-Russian populations was attempted. Each officially recognized ethnic minority , however small, was granted its own national territory where it enjoyed

8235-458: The Russian central government to align Estonian governance with broader imperial standards, the autonomy of the Baltic provinces generally remained intact, as the tsarist regime sought to avoid conflicts with the local nobility. From 1783 to 1796, the administrative structure shifted temporarily under Empress Catherine II 's "Governorate System," aiming to centralize governance and bring the Baltic regions closer to imperial norms; however, this system

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8370-424: The Soviet Union in 1932, and with Germany in 1939. In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in World War II . A week before the outbreak of World War II , the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact assigned Estonia to the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence. During the invasion of Poland , Joseph Stalin presented Estonia with an ultimatum, and the Estonian government signed

8505-437: The Soviet Union on 22 June, the Summer War began in Estonia. The Soviet authorities forcibly conscripted around 34,000 young Estonian men; fewer than 30% would survive the war. Soviet extermination battalions adopted a scorched-earth policy , massacring many civilians in the process, and NKVD units executed political prisoners who could not be evacuated. Thousands of Estonians joined anti-Soviet partisan groups known as

8640-427: The Soviet Union. In 1913, Stalin, in his work Marxism and the National Question , which subsequently became the cornerstone of the Soviet policy towards nationalities, defined a nation as "a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological makeup manifested in a common culture". Many of the subject nationalities or communities in

8775-444: The Soviet forces launched several major offensives , compelling German troops to withdraw. During the German retreat, Jüri Uluots appointed a government led by Otto Tief in a final effort to restore independence. The government took control in Tallinn and parts of western Estonia, but failed to stop the Soviet offensive, which captured Tallinn on 22 September and the rest of mainland Estonia shortly after. In November and December,

8910-430: The Soviets were concerned about the possible threat of pan-Turkic nationalism , as seen in its reaction to the Basmachi movement , closer analysis informed by the primary sources paints a much more nuanced picture than is commonly presented. The Soviets aimed to create ethnically homogenous republics; however, many areas were ethnically mixed (especially the Ferghana Valley ), and it often proved difficult to assign

9045-450: The Terrible of Russia (Muscovy) invaded Livonia, starting the Livonian War . The Livonian Order was decisively defeated in 1560. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish–Lithuanian rule, while Tallinn and the nobles of northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Tsar Ivan's forces were at first able to conquer the larger part of Livonia. Epidemics of plague swept through

9180-477: The USSR was followed by korenizatsiya (indigenization). Pre-1917 Russia was a multiethnic empire, not a nation state . In the 1905 Duma elections the nationalist parties received only 9 percent of all votes. Many non-Russian indigenous ethnic groups in the Russian Empire were classified as inorodtsy (literally meaning "of different, i.e., non-Russian descent"). After the February Revolution , attitudes in regards to this topic began to change. In early 1917,

9315-478: The Uzbek and Tajik parties, not without strong involvement of the Communist Party, left these three largely Tajik-populated territories within the Turkic-populated Uzbek SSR. The Tajik SSR was created on 5 December 1929 as the home for most of the ethnic Tajiks in Soviet Central Asia within the boundaries of present-day Tajikistan . In the 1920s and the 1930s, the policy of national delimitation, which assigned national territories to ethnic groups and nationalities,

9450-451: The Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts went on to rule by decree for several years, while the parliament did not reconvene (" era of silence "). A new constitution was adopted in a 1937 referendum, and in 1938 a new bicameral parliament was elected in a popular vote, where both pro-government and opposition candidates participated. The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in interwar Europe, and

9585-407: The West. Estonia joined the League of Nations in 1921. Attempts to establish a larger alliance together with Finland , Poland , and Latvia failed, with only a mutual-defence pact being signed with Latvia in 1923, and later was followed up with the Baltic Entente of 1934. In the 1930s, Estonia also engaged in secret military co-operation with Finland . Non-aggression pacts were signed with

9720-477: The advent of a repressive policy featuring abolition of the national institutions, ethnic deportations , national terror , and Russification (mostly towards those with cross-border ethnic ties to foreign nation-states in the 1930s or compromised in the view of Stalin during the Great Patriotic War in the 1940s), although nation-building often continued simultaneously for others. After the establishment of

9855-426: The basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture". Central Asia's borders are often viewed by critics of the USSR as being an attempt to divide and rule ; a way to maintain Soviet hegemony over the region by artificially dividing its inhabitants into separate nations and with borders deliberately drawn so as to leave minorities within each state. Though

9990-408: The commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The flag of Estonia , adopted by the Estonian Students' Society since 1881, was prominently featured during these demonstrations. In December 1905, the first attempt to declare Estonia an independent country took place in the village of Vaali, Järvamaa . The Tsarist government responded with

10125-827: The committee declared Estonia's independence , forming the Estonian Provisional Government . Shortly thereafter, German occupation commenced, accompanied by an attempt to create the United Baltic Duchy , which aimed to establish a client state of the German Empire in the region. However, following Germany's defeat in World War I, the Germans were compelled to transfer power back to the Estonian Provisional Government on 19 November 1918. On 28 November 1918, Soviet Russia invaded , starting

10260-592: The continuity of the Estonian state and prepare the foundation for a restoration based on legal principles. In 1988, new political movements emerged, including the Popular Front of Estonia , representing a moderate faction within the independence movement, and the Estonian National Independence Party , which became the first non-communist political party legally registered in the Soviet Union. The parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia asserted

10395-517: The decades following initial Christianization, there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major uprising encompassed North Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and in 1346 the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority. For

10530-466: The dominant faith. Estonia was divided into two governorates : the Governorate of Estonia , which included Tallinn and the northern part of Estonia, and the southern Governorate of Livonia , which extended to the northern part of Latvia. The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century. Despite occasional attempts by

10665-758: The early 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed Ingvar Harra , the King of Swedes . The Salme ship burials dating from mid-8th century have been suggested as a possible starting point for the Viking Age in Europe. In the East Slavic sources, Estonians and other closely related Finnic tribes were known as Chuds . In 862, Chuds participated in the founding of the Rurik dynasty in Novgorod , gradually losing their influence to

10800-495: The east coast of the Baltic Sea, covering a total area of 45,335 square kilometres (17,504 sq mi). Tallinn , the capital city , and Tartu are the two largest urban areas . The Estonian language is the official language and the first language of the majority of the population of 1.4 million. Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BCE. The medieval indigenous population of Estonia

10935-492: The empire. The Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many social and cultural activities in local languages were suppressed. In the late 1890s, there was a new surge of nationalism with the rise of prominent figures like Jaan Tõnisson and Konstantin Päts . In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans. Nationalist poets such as Juhan Liiv began openly calling for

11070-539: The era, though diverse in origin and political stance, depicted Ivan and his armies as barbaric and tyrannical, emphasizing the suffering of local populations under Muscovite occupation. These accounts helped to shape European perceptions of the conflict, solidifying Ivan's reputation as a brutal oppressor. This did not stop Magnus, Duke of Holstein from playing a controversial role marked by shifting allegiances and aspirations for power. On June 10, 1570, he arrived in Moscow and

11205-404: The establishment of an independent Estonian state. During the 1905 Revolution , the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful political demonstrations and violent riots with looting in

11340-527: The establishment of the first hill fort settlements. The Seima-Turbino phenomenon brought the first bronze artefacts to the region and is often connected to the development of the Finno-Ugric languages . A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by the beginning of the Iron Age around 500 BC. The large amount of bronze objects indicate

11475-610: The existence of active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes. By the end of the Bronze Age, domestic manufacture of bronze artefacts began. In the Iron Age , population grew. Local production of iron started approximately in 200 BC. During the first centuries CE, North Estonia, particularly the coastal region of Virumaa , emerged as a cultural hub. This period saw an influx of North Estonian settlers into sparsely populated Baltic Sea region. This cultural and linguistic expansion originating from North Estonia gave also rise to

11610-418: The first successful circulating Estonian-language weekly newspapers, Perno Postimees , and began popularising the denomination of oneself as eestlane (Estonian). Schoolmaster Carl Robert Jakobson and clergyman Jakob Hurt became leading figures in a nationalist movement , encouraging Estonian farmers to take pride in their language and ethnic Estonian identity. The first nationwide movements formed in

11745-457: The grain requisition crises, famines , troubled economic conditions, international destabilization and the reversal of the immigration flow in the early 1930s, the Soviet Union became increasingly worried about the possible disloyalty of diaspora ethnic groups with cross-border ties (especially Finns , Germans and Poles ), residing along its western borders. This eventually led to the start of Stalin's repressive policy towards them. Following

11880-687: The home front led to civil unrest. Despite repeated appeals and promises, the Russian imperial government resisted expanding Estonian political rights. In 1917, following the February Revolution , the Russian Provisional Government finally conceded to Estonian demands. Estonia was granted autonomy , and the Estonian Provincial Assembly was formed through democratic elections. In addition, the territory of autonomous Estonia

12015-653: The inland south had stronger ties to the Balts and the principality of Pskov . The Estonian landscape was dotted with numerous hill forts, and evidence of ancient harbor sites has been found along the coast of Saaremaa. During the Viking Age, Estonia was a region of active trade, with exports such as iron, furs, and honey. Imports included fine goods like silk, jewelry, glass, and Ulfberht swords . Estonian burial sites from this era often contain both individual and collective graves, with artifacts such as weapons and jewelry that reflect

12150-608: The introduction of the Soviet passport system in 1932, each adult citizen's ethnicity ( Russian : национальность ) was necessarily recorded in their passport. Where parents' nationalities differed, a citizen was able to choose which nationality to register in their passport. This practice did not exist in the Russian Empire and has been abolished in the Russian Federation, although it remains law in some former-Soviet republics, including Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan . The Bolsheviks' plan

12285-544: The larger Russian cities. Other minorities included Bulgarians , Greeks , Hungarians , Romani , Uigurs , Koreans , and Gagauz (today the Gagauz live in a compact area known as Gagauzia in the south of Moldova, where they enjoy a measure of autonomy). The Volga Germans lost their national territory with the outbreak of World War II in 1941. The peoples of the North had neither autonomous republics nor autonomous oblasts, but since

12420-595: The last German troops on Estonian islands were evacuated to the Courland Pocket , leaving Estonia under Soviet occupation. Facing a second Soviet occupation, tens of thousands of Estonians fled westward. Overall, Estonia lost about 25% of its population through deaths, deportations and evacuations in World War II. Estonia also suffered some irrevocable territorial losses, as the Soviet Union transferred border areas comprising about 5% of Estonian pre-war territory from

12555-830: The major nationalities, 23 autonomous regions (18 ASSR and 5 autonomous oblasts) for other nationalities within the Russian SFSR, and 6 autonomous regions within other Union-level republics (one in Uzbek SSR, one in Azerbaijan SSR, one in Tajik SSR, and three in Georgian SSR). Higher-level autonomous national territories in the Soviet Union Despite the general policy of granting national territories to all ethnic groups, several nationalities remained without their own territories in

12690-560: The most diverse and from the very beginning it was constituted as the RSFSR – the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , a federation within a federation. The Russian SFSR was divided in the early 1920s into some 30 autonomous ethnic territories ( Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics – ASSR and autonomous oblasts – AO), many of which exist to this day as ethnic republics within the Russian Federation . There

12825-411: The neighboring Finnish language and continued until the early 2nd millennium AD when the encroachment of Baltic and Slavic tribes limited the reach of Finnic cultures. Commercial contacts in the Baltic Sea region grew and extended. During this period, North Estonia developed increasingly robust connections with the southern and southeastern Baltic Sea regions, particularly with tribes associated with

12960-554: The newspaper joined the Eesti Ajalehed group. 59°26′16.76″N 24°45′58.08″E  /  59.4379889°N 24.7661333°E  / 59.4379889; 24.7661333 This Estonian newspaper-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Estonia – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in the European Union  (green)  –  [ Legend ] Estonia , officially

13095-620: The offensive and the war ended in 1583 with Russian defeat. As a result of the Livonian War, northern Estonia became Swedish Duchy of Estonia and southern Estonia became Polish Duchy of Livonia . Saaremaa remained under Danish control while Ruhnu was part of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia . During Polish rule in South Estonia, efforts were made to restore Catholicism, yet this was distinct from traditional Counter-Reformation actions, as Poland–Lithuania fostered religious tolerance. In 1582,

13230-505: The outside world. Although occupied Estonia had one of the highest standards of living in the Soviet Union, it lagged far behind its neighbor Finland in economic development and quality of life. Soviet security forces in Estonia enjoyed vast powers to suppress dissent, yet underground resistance endured. Despite heavy censorship, many Estonians bypassed restrictions by covertly listening to Voice of America broadcasts and watching Finnish television , offering rare glimpses into life beyond

13365-443: The parish (Estonian: kihelkond ) and the county (Estonian: maakond ), the latter composed of multiple parishes. Each parish was typically governed by local nobles referred to as kings (Estonian: kuningas ). Ancient Estonia had a professional warrior caste while the nobles' wealth and prestige was based on international trade. The parishes were commonly centered around hill forts, though occasionally multiple forts existed within

13500-431: The population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s. The Swedish era in Estonia was complex, marked by both cultural repression and significant reforms. Initially, Swedish rule brought Protestant puritans who opposed traditional Estonian beliefs and practices, leading to witch trials , bans on folk music, and the burning of traditional costumes. While large parts of

13635-553: The pre-war republic. This led to the formation of the Congress of Estonia , a grassroots parliament dedicated to achieving independence through legal continuity and sovereignty. In March 1991, a referendum was held where 78.4% of voters (including Soviet citizens) supported full independence. During the coup attempt in Moscow , Estonia declared restoration of independence on 20 August 1991. Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September Estonia

13770-652: The primacy of Estonian laws with the Sovereignty Declaration on 16 November 1988, inspiring similar declarations across other Soviet republics . On 23 August 1989, approximately two million people formed the Baltic Way , a human chain spanning Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, to demonstrate unity in pursuit of independence. In 1989, the Estonian Citizens' Committees began registering citizens according to jus sanguinis – those whose citizenship traced back to

13905-473: The region. Furthermore, the NTD also aimed to create viable entities, with economic, geographical, agricultural and infrastructural matters also to be taken into account and frequently trumping those of ethnicity. The attempt to balance these contradictory aims within an overall nationalist framework proved exceedingly difficult and often impossible, resulting in the drawing of convoluted borders, multiple enclaves and

14040-852: The rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and prince-bishoprics of Dorpat and Ösel–Wiek . In 1236, after suffering a major defeat , the Sword Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order becoming the Livonian Order . The eastern border with the Novgorod Republic was fixed after the Battle on the Ice took place on Lake Peipus in 1242, where the combined armies of the Livonian Order and Estonian infantry were defeated by Novgorod. The southeastern region of Setomaa remained under Russian rule until

14175-593: The rural population remained in serfdom during the Swedish rule, legal reforms under King Charles XI strengthened both serfs' and free tenant farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in historical memory. Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus established gymnasiums in Tallinn and Tartu; the latter was upgraded to Tartu University in 1632. Printing presses were also established in both towns. The beginnings of

14310-428: The régime never used violence against political opponents. In spite of political complications, Estonia enjoyed rapid economic growth during the interwar period. Land reforms improved the farmers' conditions, but the country also prospered from industrialisation and the development of oil shale mining. With the independence, most economic links with Russia were severed, but trade was rapidly reoriented towards markets in

14445-696: The same time, the Tajik ASSR was created within the Uzbek SSR for the Tajik ethnic population and, in May 1929, it was separated from Uzbek SSR and upgraded to the status of a full Soviet Socialist Republic (the Tajik SSR ). The Kirghiz SSR (today's Kyrgyzstan ) was created only in 1936; between 1929 and 1936 it existed as the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast (province) within the Russian SFSR . The Kazakh SSR

14580-539: The shared material culture of Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The spiritual and religious beliefs of medieval Estonians before their Christianization remain a topic of historical interest and debate. Estonian spirituality was deeply rooted in animistic traditions, with shamans ( nõid ) and fortunetellers known abroad, as noted by sources like Adam of Bremen and the Novgorod First Chronicle . The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as

14715-499: The subsequent centuries Low German remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside. Tallinn , the capital of Danish Estonia founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the Lübeck law and received full town rights in 1248. The Hanseatic League controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and overall the four largest cities in Estonia became members: Tallinn, Tartu , Pärnu , and Viljandi . Tallinn acted as

14850-560: The territory, compounding the destruction. Estonian peasants, growing increasingly resentful of local authorities’ failure to protect them from Russian raids, erupted in uprisings in 1560, besieging Koluvere Castle in Läänemaa . The rebellion saw Estonians briefly elect their own king before it was ultimately suppressed. Reports of Russian atrocities against Livonians, led by Ivan the Terrible and his forces, spread widely in Europe. Chroniclers of

14985-489: The time of the Great Northern War, many Estonians were loyal to the Swedish crown, with up to 20,000 fighting to defend Estonia against Russian invasion. Stories of the Swedish king Charles XII , who was revered in Estonian folk memory, embody a sentiment that distinguished the Swedish era from the harsher Russian rule that followed. Despite the initial Swedish success in the victorious Battle of Narva , Russia conquered

15120-599: The two separate successor republics of the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva , which were transformed into the Bukhara and Khorezm People's Soviet Republics following the takeover by the Red Army in 1920. On 25 February 1924 the Politburo and Central Committee of the Soviet Union announced that it would proceed with NTD in Central Asia. The process was to be overseen by

15255-642: The unavoidable creation of large minorities who ended up living in the "wrong" republic. Additionally, the Soviets never intended for these borders to become international frontiers. NTD of the area along ethnic lines had been proposed as early as 1920. At this time Central Asia consisted of two Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs) within the Russian SFSR : the Turkestan ASSR , created in April 1918 and covering large parts of what are now southern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, as well as Turkmenistan, and

15390-529: The university in Tartu in 1802 gave opportunities for higher education to both Baltic German and a growing number of Estonian students. Among the latter were first public proponents of Estonian nationalism , such as young poet Kristjan Jaak Peterson . At the same time, the nationalist ideas of Johann Gottfried Herder greatly influenced the Baltic German intelligentsia to see the value in the native Estonian culture. The resulting Estophile movement gave rise to

15525-530: The wars stretched on until 1629, concluding with Sweden gaining Livonia , including Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia, altering the power balance in the Baltic region. In addition, Danish Saaremaa was transferred to Sweden in 1645. During the Russo-Swedish War , Russia in 1656 captured eastern parts of Estonia, including Tartu, holding it until the Treaty of Cardis was concluded in 1661. The wars had halved

15660-551: The whole of Estonia by the end of 1710. The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000. Under the terms of the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia , the country was incorporated into the Russian Empire under the "Baltic Special Order" ( Balti erikord ). This policy restored the political and landholding rights of the local aristocracy , and recognized Lutheranism as

15795-420: Was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile . Following the 1988–90 bloodless Estonian " Singing Revolution " against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on 20 August 1991 . Estonia is a developed country with a high-income advanced economy . It is a democratic unitary parliamentary republic , administratively subdivided into 15 maakond (counties) . It

15930-696: Was admitted into the United Nations . The last units of the Russian Army left Estonia in 1994. National delimitation in the Soviet Union The Russian-language term for this Soviet state policy was razmezhevanie ( Russian : национально-территориальное размежевание , natsionalno-territorialnoye razmezhevaniye ), which is variously translated in English-language literature as "national-territorial delimitation" (NTD), "demarcation", or "partition". National delimitation formed part of

16065-458: Was also a very large number of lower-level ethnic territories, such as national districts and national village soviets . The exact number of ASSR and AO varied over the years as new entities were created while old entities switched from one form to another, transformed into Union-level republics (e.g., Kazakh and Kyrgyz SSR created in 1936, Moldovan SSR created in 1940), or were absorbed into larger territories (e.g., Crimean ASSR absorbed into

16200-614: Was also created at that time (5 December 1936), thus completing the process of national delimitation of Soviet Central Asia into five Soviet Socialist Republics that in 1991 would become five independent states. Particularly bitter debates accompanied the partition of the Uzbek and Tajik SSRs in 1929, focusing especially on the status of the cities of Bukhara , Samarkand , and the Surxondaryo Region , all of which had sizeable, if not dominant, Tajik populations. The final decision negotiated by

16335-521: Was crowned King of Livonia by Ivan, pledging allegiance to the Russian Tsar as his overlord. Põltsamaa became the capital of his short-lived Kingdom of Livonia . Ivan and Magnus twice laid a brutal siege on Tallinn, however failing to capture it. An Estonian peasant army led by Ivo Schenkenberg was wreaking havoc in Russian rear. By the 1580s, the Polish–Lithuanian and Swedish armies had gone on

16470-432: Was cut short by Swedish conquest in the early 17th century. The Polish–Swedish War , which began in 1600, unleashed years of further devastation across Estonia. The Battle of Weissenstein ( Paide ) in 1604 marked a critical turning point, where Lithuanian hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz led a smaller Polish-Lithuanian force of 2,300 to a decisive victory against a Swedish army of 6,000. Despite this victory and others,

16605-413: Was established in 1922 as a federation of nationalities, which eventually came to encompass 15 major national territories, each organized as a Union-level republic (Soviet Socialist Republic or SSR). All 15 national republics, created between 1917 and 1940, had constitutionally equal rights and equal standing in the formal structure of state power. The largest of the 15 republics – Russia – was ethnically

16740-820: Was expanded to include the Estonian-speaking areas of Livonia. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Estonia, declaring the Provincial Assembly disbanded. In response, the Assembly established the Estonian Salvation Committee , which played a crucial role during the brief period between the Bolshevik retreat and the arrival of German forces . On 23 February 1918 in Pärnu and on 24 February in Tallinn,

16875-400: Was followed by nation-building, attempting to create a full range of national institutions within each national territory. Each officially recognized ethnic minority, however small, was granted its own national territory where it enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy, in addition to national elites. A written national language was developed (if it had been lacking), national language planning

17010-665: Was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and the whole country was occupied. The Independent Signal Battalion was the only unit of the Estonian Army to offer armed resistance. On 6 August 1940, Estonia was formally annexed by the Soviet Union as the Estonian SSR . The USSR established a repressive wartime regime in occupied Estonia, targeting the country's elite for arrest. Soviet repression escalated on 14 June 1941, when approximately 11,000 Estonians were deported to Russia . When Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against

17145-401: Was implemented especially successfully in the Ukrainian SSR , which at first indeed succeeded in attracting the population of Polish Kresy . However, some Ukrainian communists claimed neighboring regions even from the Russian SFSR . Russia had conquered Central Asia in the 19th century by annexing the formerly independent khanates of Kokand and Khiva and the Emirate of Bukhara . After

17280-411: Was implemented, native teachers were trained, and national schools were established. This was always accompanied by native-language press and books written in the native language, along with other facets of cultural life. National elites were encouraged to develop and take over the leading administrative and Party positions, sometimes in proportions exceeding the proportion of the native population. With

17415-550: Was merged into Reichskommissariat Ostland . About a thousand Estonian Jews were killed in 1941 and numerous forced labour camps were established. German occupation authorities started recruiting men into volunteer units and limited conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of the Estonian Waffen-SS division . Thousands of Estonians escaped to Finland, where many volunteered to fight together with Finns against Soviets . The Red Army reached

17550-605: Was officially partitioned into two Soviet Socialist Republics (SSR), the Turkmen SSR and the Uzbek SSR . The Turkmen SSR roughly matched the borders of today's Turkmenistan and it was created as a home for the Turkmens of Soviet Central Asia. The Bukhara and Khorezm People's Soviet Republics were largely absorbed into the Uzbek SSR, which also included other territories inhabited by Uzbeks as well as those inhabited by ethnic Tajiks . At

17685-472: Was one of the last pagan civilisations in Europe to adopt Christianity following the Northern Crusades in the 13th century. After centuries of successive rule by the Teutonic Order , Denmark , Sweden , and the Russian Empire , a distinct Estonian national identity began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence from the then-warring Russian and German empires. Democratic throughout most of

17820-451: Was referring to Balts , while others have proposed that the name then applied to the whole eastern Baltic Sea region. Scandinavian sagas and Viking runestones referring to Eistland are the earliest known sources that definitely use the name in its modern geographic meaning. From Old Norse the toponym spread to other Germanic vernaculars and reached literary Latin by the end of 12th century. The oldest known settlement in Estonia

17955-430: Was repealed, and the Baltic Special Order was restored under Emperor Paul I . This Baltic Special Order remained largely in effect until the late 19th century, marking a distinctive period of localized governance within the Russian Empire. Serfdom was abolished in 1816–1819, but this initially had little practical effect; major improvements in farmers' rights started with reforms in the mid-19th century. The reopening of

18090-404: Was the Phosphorite War , an environmental protest against Soviet plans to establish large phosphate mines in Virumaa . On 23 August 1987, the Hirvepark meeting in Tallinn called for the public disclosure of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its secret protocols which had led to Estonia's loss of independence. Although direct demands for independence were not yet made, organizers aimed to reinforce

18225-409: Was to identify the total sum of all national, cultural, linguistic, and territorial diversities under their rule and establish scientific criteria to identify which groups of people were entitled to the description of 'nation'. This task relied on the existing work of tsarist-era ethnographers and statisticians, as well as new research conducted under Soviet auspices. Because most people did not know what

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