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102-398: Defunct Newspapers Journals TV channels Websites Other Economics Gun rights Identity politics Nativist Religion Watchdog groups Youth/student groups Miscellaneous Other The Hoover Institution (officially The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace and formerly The Hoover Institute and Library on War, Revolution, and Peace )

204-565: A demonstration organized by Father Gapon . ) and with the participation of Pyotr Rutenberg . Many historians, such as the German Konrad Heiden and the Russian historian Mikhail Lepekhine maintain that Matvei Golovinski , a writer and Okhrana agent, fabricated the first edition of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1903). The organization also fabricated documentation connected with

306-435: A form of direct action is either using the resources already publicly available (Make) or contracting the private sector to address the issue (Buy). The indirect section of money explains means to dissuade or encourage behavior using money. Literally through taxing the undesired behavior and subsidizing the desired behavior. The direct section of Other echoes the direct section of Money. However, instead of using fiscal power,

408-592: A former Okhrana officer and relative of the director of the Russian police department Stepan Petrovich Beletsky , both Malinovsky and Joseph Stalin reported on Lenin as well as on each other although Stalin was unaware that Malinovosky was also a penetration agent. Malinovsky won the seat and led the Bolshevik delegation in the Fourth Duma until 1914, but even with the information Malinovsky and other informants provided to

510-563: A general budget of $ 3.5 million a year. In 1976, one third of Stanford University's book holdings were housed at the Hoover library. At that time, it was the largest private archive collection in the United States. For his presidential campaign in 1980 , Reagan engaged at least thirteen Hoover scholars to assist the campaign in multiple capacities. After Reagan won the election, more than thirty current or former Hoover Institution fellows worked for

612-569: A leading Bolshevik and close associate of Vladimir Lenin ), Yevno Azef (1869–1918), Roman Malinovsky (1876–1918) and Dmitry Bogrov (1887–1911). The Okhrana tried to compromise the labour movement by setting up police-run trade unions , a practice known as zubatovshchina . The Communists blamed the Okhrana in part for the Bloody Sunday event of January 1905, when Tsarist troops killed hundreds of unarmed protesters who were marching during

714-605: A liability than an asset. The Assembly of Working Men, a police-run union with about 6,000–8,000 members, formed by the alleged Okhrana agent Father Georgy Gapon , sparked the Bloody Sunday massacre of January 1905, a milestone in the Revolution of 1905 when union members marched peacefully on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and were fired upon by Imperial soldiers. The Okhrana complemented police socialism and other projects to prevent

816-586: A library founded by Stanford alumnus Herbert Hoover prior to his presidency in order to house his archives gathered during the Great War . The well-known Hoover Tower was built to house the archives, then known as the Hoover War Collection (now the Hoover Institution Library and Archives ), and contained material related to World War I , World War II , and other global events. The collection

918-415: A particular issue. The use of effective tools and instruments determines the outcome of a policy. Many actors can be important in the public policy process, but government officials ultimately choose public policy in response to the public issue or problem at hand. In doing so, government officials are expected to meet public sector ethics and take the needs of all project stakeholders into account. It

1020-422: A positive effect. Enforcement may include law enforcement or combine incentive and disincentive-based policy instruments. A meta-analysis of policy studies across multiple policy domains suggests enforcement mechanisms are the "only modifiable treaty design choice" with the potential to improve the mostly low effectiveness of international treaties . As stated by Paul Cairney, the implementation gap are

1122-448: A range of tools and approaches to help in this task. Government action is the decisions, policies, and actions taken by governments, which can have a significant impact on individuals, organizations, and society at large. Regulations, subsidies, taxes, and spending plans are just a few of the various shapes it might take. Achieving certain social or economic objectives, such as fostering economic expansion, lowering inequality, or safeguarding

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1224-521: A selloff. In 2020, Condoleezza Rice succeeded Thomas W. Gilligan as director. In November 2020, Scott Atlas , a Hoover fellow, was known for opposing public health measures as a major Trump advisor during the COVID-19 pandemic , and was condemned by a Stanford University faculty vote in November 2020. In January 2021, during Stanford University faculty senate discussions on closer collaboration between

1326-545: A series of stages, from a notional starting point at which policymakers begin to think about a policy problem to a notional end point at which a policy has been implemented, and policymakers think about how successful it has been before deciding what to do next." Officials considered policymakers bear the responsibility to advance the interests of various stakeholders. Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed

1428-486: A violent repression of the revolution, only to call off the effort for lack of manpower. Since these attempts at repression never reached fruition, they only served to aggravate the already enraged Russian populace and to deepen their distrust of the Imperial government. Trepov's replacement by P.N. Durnovo in late-October ushered in a period of even more vicious repression of the revolutionaries. Indicative of this new period

1530-500: Is a time-consuming ' policy cycle '. The policy cycle as set out in Understanding Public Policy: Theories and Issues . Agenda setting identifies problems that require government attention, deciding which issue deserve the most attention and defining the nature of the problem. Most public problems are made through the reflection of social and ideological values. As societies and communities evolve over time,

1632-441: Is an American public policy think tank which promotes personal and economic liberty , free enterprise , and limited government . While the institution is formally a unit of Stanford University , it maintains an independent board of overseers and relies on its own income and donations. It is widely described as conservative , although its directors have contested the idea that it is partisan . The institution began in 1919 as

1734-501: Is however worth noting that what public policy is put forward can be influenced by the political stance of the party in power. Following the 2008/2009 financial crisis, David Cameron's Conservative party looked to implement a policy of austerity in 2010 after winning the general election that year, to shore up the economy and diminish the UK's national debt. Whilst the Conservatives saw reducing

1836-427: Is influenced by different public problems and issues, and has different stakeholders; as such, each requires different public policy. In public policy making, numerous individuals, corporations, non-profit organizations and interest groups compete and collaborate to influence policymakers to act in a particular way. Therefore, "the failure [of public policies] is possibly not only the politician's fault because he/she

1938-474: Is measured by the capacity to create public value ." Other scholars define public policy as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives". Public policy is commonly embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and judicial decisions". Transformative constitutions of Global South considers judicial actions for Public policy as paramount, since

2040-432: Is never the lone player in the field of decision making. There is a multitude of actors pursuing their goals, sometimes complementary, often competing or contradictory ones." In this sense, public policies can be the result of actors involved, such as interest organization's, and not necessarily the will of the public. Furthermore, public policy is also affected by social and economic conditions, prevailing political values,

2142-433: Is straightforward and easy to understand, the cycle is not totally applicable in all situations of policymaking due to it being far too simple as there are more crucial steps that should go into more complex real life scenarios. The mainstream tradition of policy studies has been criticized for oversimplifying the processes of public policy, particularly in use of models based on rational choice theory , failing to capture

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2244-426: Is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous, and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined. But where the matter is complex and/or contested – where intentions are confused and/or disguised – it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously. In this case it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what actually happens. David Easton in

2346-447: Is that of Thomas R. Dye , according to whom "public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do" (Dye, 1972: 2). Although widely used, Dye's concept is also criticized as being an empty concept. Dye himself admitted that his concept "discourages elaborate academic discussions of the definition of public policy - we say simply that public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do". In an institutionalist view,

2448-591: Is the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management . Much of public policy is concerned with evaluating decision-making in governments and public bureaucracies. Public policy making can be characterized as a dynamic, complex, and interactive system through which public problems are identified and resolved through the creation of new policy or reform of existing policy. Public problems can originate in endless ways and require different policy responses (such as regulations, subsidies, import quotas, and laws) on

2550-509: Is the head of the St. Petersburg Special Section, A.V. Gerasimov's, strike on the St. Petersburg Soviet. To Emperor Nicholas II 's delight, Gerasimov arrested delegates of the Soviet en masse on December 3, 1905. Along with this repression and the end of the Revolution of 1905 came a shift in the political police's mentality; gone were the days of Nicholas I 's white-gloved moral police : post-1905

2652-465: Is the setting of the objectives for the policy, along with identifying the cost and effect of solutions that could be proposed from policy instruments. Legitimation is when approval/ support for the policy instruments is gathered, involving one of or a combination of executive approval, legislative approval, and seeking consent through consultation or referendums. Policy implementation is establishing or employing an organization to take responsibility for

2754-420: Is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle", which was first discussed by the political scientist Harold Laswell in his book The Decision Process: Seven Categories of Functional Analysis , published in 1956. The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is agenda setting, policy formulation, legitimation , implementation, and evaluation. "It divides the policy process into

2856-544: Is usually either continued as is, modified, or discontinued. This cycle will unless discontinued go back to the agenda-setting phase and the cycle will commence again. However, the policy cycle is illustrated in a chronological and cyclical structure which could be misleading as in actuality, policymaking would include overlapping stages between the multiple interactions of policy proposals, adjustments, decision-making amongst multiple government institutions and respective authoritative actors. Likewise, although its heuristic model

2958-664: The Guard Department (Russian: Охранное отделение , romanized : Okhrannoye otdelenie ) and commonly abbreviated in modern English sources as the Okhrana (Russian: Охрана , IPA: [ɐˈxranə] , lit. 'The Guard') was a secret police force of the Russian Empire and part of the police department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) in the late 19th century and early 20th century, aided by

3060-760: The National Humanities Medal to the Hoover Institution. In August 2017, the David and Joan Traitel Building was inaugurated. The ground floor is a conference facility with a 400-seat auditorium and the top floor houses the Hoover Institution's headquarters. At any given time, as of 2017, the Hoover Institution has as many as 200 resident scholars known as fellows. They are an interdisciplinary group studying political science, education, economics, foreign policy, energy, history, law, national security, health and politics. Some have joint appointments as lecturers on

3162-565: The Special Corps of Gendarmes . Formed to combat political terrorism and left-wing politics and revolutionary activity, the Okhrana operated offices throughout the Russian Empire, as well as satellite agencies in a number of foreign countries. It concentrated on monitoring the activities of Russian revolutionaries abroad, including in Paris , where Okhrana agent Pyotr Rachkovsky (1853–1910)

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3264-406: The antisemitic Beilis trial of 1913. Suspects captured by the Okhrana were passed to the judicial system of the Russian Empire . The Okhrana was perpetually underfunded and understaffed; before 1914 it had just 49 employees split between seven offices and never had more than 2,000 informants at any one time. It never received more than 10% of the total police budget. Despite the reforms in

3366-459: The policy window , another concept demonstrating the critical moment within a time and situation that a new policy could be motivated. Because the definition of public problems are not obvious, they are most often denied and not acted upon. The problem stream represents a policy process to compromise for how worthy problems are to create policies and solutions. This is represented in five discrete factors: Therefore, John Kingdon's model suggests

3468-429: The public , typically by a government . Sometimes they are made by nonprofit organizations or are made in co-production with communities or citizens, which can include potential experts, scientists, engineers and stakeholders or scientific data, or sometimes use some of their results. They are typically made by policy-makers affiliated with (in democratic polities ) currently elected politicians . Therefore,

3570-437: The "policy process is a complex political process in which there are many actors: elected politicians, political party leaders, pressure groups, civil servants, publicly employed professionals, judges, non-governmental organizations, international agencies, academic experts, journalists and even sometimes citizens who see themselves as the passive recipients of policy." A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy

3672-501: The 2010s, public policy making is increasingly goal-oriented, aiming for measurable results and goals, and decision-centric, focusing on decisions that must be taken immediately. Okhrana The Department for the Protection of Public Safety and Order ( Russian : Отделение по охранению общественной безопасности и порядка , romanized :  Otdelenie po okhraneniyu obshchestvennoy bezopadnosti i poryadka ), usually called

3774-589: The Bolsheviks at the expense of other revolutionaries, the Okhrana helped Roman Malinovsky (a police spy who had managed to rise within the Bolshevik hierarchy and gain Lenin's trust) in his bid to become a Bolshevik delegate to the Duma in 1912. To this end, the Okhrana sequestered Malinovsky's criminal record and arrested other candidates for the seat. According to the transcribed recollections of Nikolay Vladimirovich Veselago,

3876-846: The Bolsheviks sought to exploit to start a revolution, Zubatov hoped the unions would mollify factory workers with improvements in working conditions and thus prevent workers from joining revolutionary movements that threatened the monarchy. To this end, Zubatov set up the Moscow Mechanical Production Workers' Mutual Aid Society in May 1901. After Zubatov became head of the Special Section in 1902, he expanded his trade unions from Moscow to St. Petersburg and to Southern Russia. Zubatovite trade unions achieved moderate success at channeling workers' political agitations away from revolutionary movements and toward labor improvements, especially in

3978-453: The Chinese and Russian collections grew considerably. Despite student unrest during the 1960s, the institution continued to develop closer relations with Stanford University. In 1975, Ronald Reagan , who was Governor of California at that time, was designated as Hoover's first honorary fellow. He donated his gubernatorial papers to the Hoover library. During that time the Hoover Institution had

4080-475: The Department of Police were organized in 1906. The centralized Security Section of the Department of Police was created on February 9, 1907; it was located at 16, Fontanka, St. Petersburg. The exposure of Yevno Azef (who had organized many assassinations, including that of Plehve ) and Dmitri Bogrov (who assassinated Stolypin in 1911) as Okhrana double agents put the agency's methods under great suspicion;

4182-1067: The Department of State Police under Ministry of the Interior (MVD) and transferred part of the Special Corps of Gendarmes and the Third Section of the Imperial Chancellery to the new body. The position of Chief of Gendarmes was merged with that of the Minister, and Commander of the Corps was assigned as a Deputy of the Minister. Still, these measures did not prevent the assassination of Alexander II in March 1881. In an attempt to implement preventive security measures, Emperor Alexander III ( r.  1881–1894 ) immediately set up two more Security and Investigation (охранно-розыскные) secret-police stations, supervised by Gendarme officers, in Moscow and Warsaw ; they became

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4284-580: The General Staff and of the Army . Just as the Okhrana had once sponsored trade unions to divert activist energy from political causes, so too did the secret police attempt to promote the Bolshevik party, as the Bolsheviks seemed a relatively harmless alternative to more violent revolutionary groups. Indeed, to the Okhrana, Lenin seemed to actively hinder the revolutionary movement by denouncing other revolutionary groups and refusing to cooperate with them. To aid

4386-462: The Hoover Institution and Library was renamed the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, its current name. In 1959, Stanford's Board of Trustees officially established the Hoover Institution as "an independent institution within the frame of Stanford University". In 1960, W. Glenn Campbell was appointed director and substantial budget increases soon resulted in corresponding increases in acquisitions and related research projects. In particular,

4488-413: The Hoover Institution's website listed 198 fellows. Fellowship appointments do not require the approval of Stanford tenure committees. Below is a list of directors and some of the more prominent fellows, former and current. 37°25′38″N 122°09′59″W  /  37.4271°N 122.1664°W  / 37.4271; -122.1664 Public policy They are created and/or enacted on behalf of

4590-403: The Hoover board of trustees brought in senior Trump economic officials for off-the-record forecasts. According to The New York Times , "The president’s aides appeared to be giving wealthy party donors an early warning of a potentially impactful contagion at a time when Mr. Trump was publicly insisting that the threat was nonexistent." The board members spread the bad news and the stock market had

4692-549: The House of Representatives Newt Gingrich ; and former Secretary of Defense James N. Mattis . In 2020, former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice became the institution's director. It divides its fellows into separate research teams to work on various subjects, including Economic Policy , History , Education , and Law . It publishes research by its own university press , the Hoover Institution Press. In 2021, Hoover

4794-660: The Okhrana as a Russian security service included the Secret Prikaz ( Taynyy Prikaz  [ ru ] ) (1654–1676), the Preobrazhensky Prikaz  [ ru ] (1686–1726), the Secret Chancellery  [ ru ] (1731–1762), the Secret Expedition  [ ru ] (1762–1801), and the Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery (1826–1880). The first special security department

4896-452: The Okhrana had focused on interfering with the activities of relatively small, and distinct, revolutionary groups. The Revolution of 1905, characterized by seemingly spontaneous marches and strikes, exposed the Okhrana's inefficacy at controlling mass popular movements. Not only did the Okhrana lack the capacity to prevent the mass movements of 1905, or even to contain them once they began, the Okhrana's misguided attempts may even have worsened

4998-510: The Okhrana quickly and quietly disappeared. Some Okhrana functionaries continued their activities in the civil-war period (1917–1923) within the White Armies , notably in the OSVAG  [ ru ] ( Russian : ОСВАГ – ОСВедомительное АГентство , romanized :  OSVAG – OSVedomitel'noe AGentsvo , lit.   'Information Agency'). After the 1917 October Revolution ,

5100-479: The Okhrana's activities even contributed to the wave of domestic unrest and revolutionary terror that they were intended to quell. Perhaps most paradoxical of all was the Okhrana's collaboration with revolutionary organizations. Early Okhrana agents to work alongside revolutionaries included Lieutenant-Colonel Georgy Sudeykin of the St. Petersburg Special Section, who, in 1882, set up an illegal printing operation to publish

5202-478: The Okhrana's persistent focus on revolutionary groups may have resulted in the secret police not fully appreciating the deep-seated popular unrest brewing in Russia. The revolutionaries identified the Okhrana as one of the main symbols of Tsarist repression , and its headquarters were sacked and burned on 27 February 1917. The newly formed Provisional Government then disbanded the whole organization and released most of

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5304-573: The Okhrana, the police were unprepared for the rise of Bolshevism in 1917. Although the secret police had agents within the Bolshevik organization, other factors contributed to the Okhrana's inefficacy at averting the events of 1917. Among these factors was the ban on police spies within the military promulgated by the Deputy Minister of the Interior Vladimir Dzhunkovsky , who found the practice dishonorable and damaging to morale. While

5406-579: The Reagan administration in 1981. In 1989, Campbell retired as director of Hoover and replaced by John Raisian, a change that was considered the end of an era. Raisan served as director until 2015, and was succeeded by Thomas W. Gilligan . In 2001, Hoover Senior fellow Condoleezza Rice joined the George W. Bush administration , serving as National Security Advisor from 2001 to 2005 and as Secretary of State from 2005 to 2009. In 2006, President George W. Bush awarded

5508-588: The Stanford Library system. The 285-foot tall tower was completed in 1941 on date of the university's golden jubilee . The tower has since been a well-recognized part of the Stanford campus. In 1956, former President Hoover, in conjunction with the Institution and Library, began a major fundraising campaign that transitioned the organization to its current form as a research institution as well as archive. In 1957,

5610-514: The Stanford faculty. The first Trump administration maintained relations with the institution during his presidency, and several Hoover employees became senior advisors or were hired for jobs in his administration, including Secretary of Defense James N. Mattis , who was the Davies Family Distinguished Visiting Fellow at Hoover from 2013 to 2016, where he studied leadership, national security, strategy, innovation, and

5712-477: The US, Members of Congress have observed that partisan rancour, ideological disputes, and decreased willingness to compromise on policies have made policy making far more difficult than it was only a decade ago .These are good examples of how varying political beliefs can impact what is perceived as paramount for the electorate. Since societies have changed in the past decades, the public policy making system changed too. In

5814-462: The USA of the 1950s provided an illustration of the need he found to broaden his conceptualization of public policy beyond stated ideas: "If the formal policy of an educational system forbids discrimination against Negroes but local school boards or administrators so zone school attendance that Negroes are segregated in a few schools, both the impartial law and discriminatory practices must be considered part of

5916-575: The basis of the later Okhrana. The Imperial Gendarmerie still operated as security police in the rest of the country through their Gubernial and Uyezd Directorates. The Emperor also established the Special Conference under the MVD (1881), which had the right to declare a State of Emergency Security in various parts of the Empire (which was actively used in the time of 1905 Revolution ) and subordinated all of

6018-536: The beginning of World War I in 1914 moved the Okhrana's attentions initially from countering revolutionaries to countering German espionage, the focus quickly shifted back as it emerged that the Germans were heavily funding Russian revolutionary groups in order to destabilize the Russian Empire. Despite the renewed attention, the Russian Revolution of 1917 took the secret police, and the country, by surprise. Indeed,

6120-495: The broader policy outcomes, "focus[ing] on a policy's societal consequences." In the United States, this concept refers not only to the result of policies, but more broadly to the decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions. As an academic discipline, public policy is studied by professors and students at public policy schools of major universities throughout the country. The U.S. professional association of public policy practitioners, researchers, scholars, and students

6222-537: The cities of Minsk and Odessa , with one high-ranking official noting that many revolutionaries and workers were joining the unions. However, Zubatov, if not police socialism, became discredited in the summer of 1903 after the Okhrana officer in charge of the Odessa union allowed a strike to get out of hand, causing a mass movement which paralyzed the region. Although the police-run unions continued to operate after Zubatov's ousting, without Okhrana funding, they proved more

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6324-609: The collection of documents of President Herbert Hoover , which he began to collect at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Thousands of Persian books, official documents, letters, multimedia pieces and other materials on Iran 's history, politics and culture can also be found at the Stanford University library and the Hoover Institution library. The Hoover Institution's in-house publisher, Hoover Institution Press, produces publications on public policy topics, including

6426-481: The collection of primary materials related to World War I , a project that became known as the Hoover War Collection. Assisted primarily by gifts from private donors, the Hoover War Collection flourished during its early years. In 1922, the collection became known as the Hoover War Library, now known as the Hoover Institution Library and Archives , and includes a variety of rare and unpublished material, including

6528-529: The conditions in which revolutionary movements could take hold by pursuing initiatives to curtail the activities of existing organizations. Yevno Azef , the notorious Okhrana provocateur who became the head of the Socialist Revolutionary Fighting Organization (SRFO), epitomized the Okhrana's inscrutable practice of revolutionary-group infiltration. While the Okhrana managed to imbed many of its agents in revolutionary organizations,

6630-419: The current dynamics in today's society as well as sustaining ambiguities and misunderstandings. In contrast, an anthropological approach to studying public policy deconstructs many of the categories and concepts that are currently used, seeking to gain a deeper understanding of the configurations of actors, activities, and influences that go into shaping policy decisions, implementations and results. Each system

6732-408: The early 19th century, the practice of torture was never truly abolished. Possibly, the formation of the Okhrana led to increasing use of torture, due to the Okhrana using methods such as arbitrary arrest , detention and torture to gain information. Claims persisted the Okhrana had operated torture chambers in places like Warsaw , Riga , Odessa and most of the urban centres. Forerunners of

6834-465: The effective use of military force. In March 2019, Mattis returned to his post at Hoover. Distinguished Visiting Fellow Kevin Hassett became the first chairman of Trump's Council of Economic Advisors (CEA). The CEA chief principal economist, Josh Rauh, took leave from his Hoover Institution fellowship. After the third CEA chairman Tyler Goodspeed resigned in 2021, he went to Hoover. In February 2020,

6936-511: The environment, is the aim of government action. Public policy can be conceptualized in varying ways, according to the purposes of the speaker or author, and the characteristics of the situation they are concerned with. One dividing line in conceptions of public policy is between those that see it primarily in terms of ideas (principles and plans of action) and those that see it as a collection of empirical phenomena (the things that are done, and their outcomes). The first of these conceptualizations

7038-695: The files of the Okhrana and a plurality of government documents produced during the war. It was housed originally in the Stanford Library , separate from the general stacks. In his memoirs, Hoover wrote: I did a vast amount of reading, mostly on previous wars, revolutions, and peace-makings of Europe and especially the political and economic aftermaths. At one time I set up some research at London, Paris, and Berlin into previous famines in Europe to see if there had developed any ideas on handling relief and pestilence. ... I

7140-557: The foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations. Further foundational aspects include both judicial interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and effectively, serves and supports governmental institutions and policies, and encourages active citizenship. In his book Advanced Introduction to Public Policy , B. Guy Peters defines public policy as "the set of activities that governments engage in for

7242-722: The government of the RSFSR under Vladimir Lenin replaced the Okhrana with a Soviet security organisation – the much larger and more efficient Cheka in December 1917, supplemented by the GRU (military intelligence) from October–November 1918. The Cheka and its successor organizations (notably the GPU and the OGPU ) eventually became the KGB (1954–1991) after the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in March 1953. After

7344-625: The imperial police forces to the Commander of the Gendarmes (1882). The rise of the socialist movements led to the integration of security forces. From 1898 the Special Section (Особый отдел) of the Department of Police succeeded the Gendarmes in the role of gaining information from domestic and foreign agents and " perlustration ". Following the Socialist-Revolutionary Party's assassination of MVD Minister Dmitry Sipyagin on April 2, 1902,

7446-415: The implementation should start with the target group, as they are seen as the actual implementers of policy. Evaluation is the process of assessing the extent to which the policy has been successful, or if this was the right policy to begin with/ was it implemented correctly and if so, did it go as expected. Maintenance is when the policy makers decide to either terminate or continue the policy. The policy

7548-417: The innovations of one Okhrana bureau chief, Sergey Zubatov . While P.I. Rachkovsky , as head of the Okhrana's Foreign Agency, had long ordered Okhrana agents to infiltrate and influence revolutionary movements abroad, Zubatov brought these tactics to a new level by setting up Okhrana-controlled trade unions, the foundation of police socialism. Perhaps recognizing the same discontent among factory workers that

7650-474: The local, national, or international level. The public problems that influence public policy making can be of economic, social, or political nature. A government holds a legal monopoly to initiate or threaten physical force to achieve its ends when necessary. For instance, in times of chaos when quick decision making is needed. A topology model can be used to demonstrate the types of and implementation of public policy: The direct section of money explains that

7752-474: The national debt as an absolute priority, the Labour Party, since the effects of Conservative austerity became apparent, have slated the policy for its 'needless' pressure on the working classes and those reliant on welfare, their 2019 election manifesto stating "Tory cuts [have] pushed our public services to breaking point" and that "the Conservatives have starved our education system of funding". Furthermore, in

7854-548: The nature in which norms, customs and morals are proven acceptable, unacceptable, desirable or undesirable changes as well. Thus, the search of crucial problems to solve becomes difficult to distinguish within 'top-down' governmental bodies. The policy stream is a concept developed by John Kingdon as a model proposed to show compelling problems need to be conjoined with two other factors: appropriate political climate and favorable and feasible solutions (attached to problems) that flow together to move onto policy agenda. This reinforces

7956-589: The new Minister Vyacheslav von Plehve gradually relieved the Directorates of Gendarmes of their investigation power in favor of Security and Investigation Stations (Охранно-розыскное отделение) under respective Mayors and Governors (who as a matter of fact were subordinate to the MVD Minister). The Okhrana used many seemingly unorthodox methods in the pursuit of its mission to defend the Tsarist monarchy; indeed, some of

8058-520: The organisation was further compromised by the discovery of many similar double agents -provocateur. In Autumn 1913, all of the Security Stations except the original Moscow, St Petersburg and Warsaw ones were dismissed. The start of World War I in 1914 marked a shift from anti-revolutionary activities of the Department of Police to counter-intelligence ; however, the efforts of the department were poorly synchronised with counter-intelligence units of

8160-852: The other half from its endowment. Funders of the organization include the Taube Family Foundation, the Koret Foundation , the Howard Charitable Foundation , the Sarah Scaife Foundation , the Walton Foundation , the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation , and the William E. Simon Foundation . Funding sources and expenditures, FY 2022 Funding Sources, FY 2022: $ 78,800,000 Expenditures, FY 2022: $ 77,600,000 In May 2018,

8262-495: The police preferred to slowly gather intelligence and to attempt to interfere with revolutionary work surreptitiously rather than to arrest known revolutionaries immediately. This policy led to numerous dubious acts on the part of police spies, who needed to participate in revolutionary activities to avoid suspicion, as when Yevno Azef, as head of the SRFO, ordered the assassination of V. K. Plehve on July 15, 1904. For over twenty years,

8364-517: The policy window appears through the emergence and connection of problems, politics and policies, emphasizing an opportunity to stimulate and initiate new policies. The issue attention cycle is a concept developed by Anthony Downs (1972) where problems progress through five distinct stages. This reinforces how the policy agenda does not necessarily lead to policy change, as public interest dissipates, most problems end up resolving themselves or get ignored by policymakers. Its key stages include: This

8466-466: The policy, making sure the organization has the resources/legal authority to do so, in addition to making sure the policy is carried out as planned. An example of this would be the department of education being set up. Enforcement mechanisms are a central part of various policies. Enforcement mechanisms co-determine natural resource governance outcomes and pollution -related policies may require proper enforcement mechanisms (and often substitutes) to have

8568-482: The policy." Easton characterized public policy as "a web of decisions and actions that allocates values". Other definitions of public policy in terms of a broad range of empirical phenomena include that of Paul Cairney: "the sum total of government action from signals of intent to the final outcomes". An example of conceiving public policy as ideas is a definition by Richard Titmuss : "the principles that govern action directed towards given ends". Titmuss' perspective

8670-485: The political forces that facilitate legislative decisions may run counter to the will of the people. Public policy focuses on the decisions that create the outputs of a political system, such as transport policies, the management of a public health service, the administration of a system schooling and the organization of a defense force. The directly measurable policy outputs, "actions actually taken in pursuance of policy decisions and statements," can be differentiated from

8772-502: The political police feared that the Russian people were as eager to destroy them as to depose the Emperor. Following the outbreak of the 1905 Revolution and assassination of Plehve, Pyotr Stolypin , as the new MVD Minister and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, set up a nationwide net of Security Stations. By 1908 there were 31 Stations, and more than 60 by 1911. Two more Special Sections of

8874-408: The political prisoners held by the Tsarist regime. Revelations of the Okhrana's earlier abuses heightened public hostility towards the secret police after the 1917 February Revolution and made it very dangerous to be a political policeman. That fact, along with the St. Petersburg Soviet 's insistence on the dissolution of the regular Tsarist police force, as well as of the political police, meant that

8976-452: The publics mood and the structure of government which all play a role in the complexity of public policy making. The large set of actors in the public policy process, such as politicians, civil servants, lobbyists, domain experts, and industry or sector representatives, use a variety of tactics and tools to advance their aims, including advocating their positions publicly, attempting to educate supporters and opponents, and mobilizing allies on

9078-466: The purpose of changing their economy and society", effectively saying that public policy is legislation brought in with the aim of benefiting or impacting the electorate in some way. In another definition, author B. Dente in his book Understanding Policy Decisions explains public policy as "a set of actions that affect the solution of a policy problem, i.e. a dissatisfaction regarding a certain need, demand or opportunity for public intervention. Its quality

9180-590: The quarterly periodicals Hoover Digest , Education Next , China Leadership Monitor , and Defining Ideas . The Hoover Institution Press previously published the bimonthly periodical Policy Review , which it acquired from The Heritage Foundation in 2001. Policy Review ceased publication with its February–March 2013 issue. The Hoover Institution Press also publishes books and essays by Hoover Institution fellows and other Hoover-affiliated scholars. The Hoover Institution receives nearly half of its funding from private gifts, primarily from individual contributions, and

9282-605: The real scene. Therein lay the origins of the Library on War, Revolution and Peace at Stanford University. By 1926, the Hoover War Library was the largest library in the world devoted to World War I , including 1.4 million items and too large to house in the Stanford University Library, so the university allocated $ 600,000 for the construction of the Hoover Tower , which was designed to be its permanent home independent of

9384-520: The revolutionary People's Will literature with Okhrana funds. Sudeykin and his colleague, a revolutionary-turned-police-informant named Sergey Degayev , passed drafts of the publication through Okhrana censors before printing. This episode marked the beginning of the Okhrana's efforts to surreptitiously observe, but also influence and undermine, revolutionary movements. This focus on infiltrating and influencing revolutionary groups, rather than merely identifying and arresting their members, intensified with

9486-448: The stages a policy must go through before an authoritative decision is made and carried out. As an example, the agenda setting stage is followed by the policy formulation, this will continue until the policy is implemented. "Top-down" and "bottom-up" describe the process of policy implementation. Top-down implementation means the carrying out of a policy at the top i.e. central government or legislature. The bottom-up approach suggests that

9588-437: The state uses authoritative power to enforce this. This comes in ways of making an action mandatory (Oblige) or prohibiting the behavior by threatening of law (Prohibit). The indirect section of Other is spreading information on an issue to the public (Inform) and making calls to action on an issue (Implore) It is through a combined effort of these means that a state addresses and works on any given issue. Public policy making

9690-659: The university and the Institution in 2021, Rice "addressed campus criticism that the Hoover Institution is a partisan think tank that primarily supports conservative administrations and policy positions" by sharing "statistics that show Hoover fellows contribute financially to both political parties on an equal basis", according to the university's newsletter. According to DeSmog , the Hoover Institution accepts scientific consensus on climate change , but has long opposed climate action . Some Hoover fellows downplay climate change . The Institution has libraries which include materials from both World War I and World War II , including

9792-471: The unrest. D. F. Trepov , the Assistant Minister of the Interior in charge of police affairs, and P. I. Rachkovsky, now in charge of all domestic political-police operations, attempted to mount an aggressive offensive against those they believed to be responsible for the unrest, namely zemstvo employees, in May 1905, but backed down three months later. In October of that year, Trepov again attempted

9894-464: Was based 1884–1902 before he returned to service in Saint Petersburg 1905–1906. The Okhrana deployed multiple methods, including covert operations , undercover agents , and "perlustration" —the reading of private correspondence. The Okhrana's Foreign Agency also monitored revolutionary activity. The Okhrana became notorious for its agents provocateurs , including Jacob Zhitomirsky (born 1880,

9996-421: Was particularly one of social contract ethics. More recently, Antonio Lassance has defined public policy as "an institutionalized proposal to solve a central problem, guided by a conception" (Lassance, 2020: 7). Lassance's perspective and concerns are grounded in a theory of change or program theory which he believes can be empirically tested. One of the most known and controversial concepts of public policy

10098-528: Was ranked as the 10th most influential think tank in the world by Academic Influence . It was ranked 22nd on the "Top Think Tanks in United States" and 1st on the "Top Think Tanks to Look Out For" lists of the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program that same year. In June 1919, Herbert Hoover , then a wealthy engineer who was one of Stanford University 's first graduates, sent a telegram offering Stanford president Ray Lyman Wilbur $ 50,000 in order to assist

10200-911: Was renamed and transformed into a research institution ("think tank") during the mid-20th century. Its mission, as described by Herbert Hoover in 1959, is "to recall the voice of experience against the making of war, and by the study of these records and their publication, to recall man's endeavors to make and preserve peace, and to sustain for America the safeguards of the American way of life." It has staffed numerous jobs in Washington for Republican presidents from Richard Nixon to Donald Trump . It has provided work for people who previously had important government jobs. Notable Hoover fellows and alumni include Nobel Prize laureates Henry Kissinger , Milton Friedman , and Gary Becker ; economist Thomas Sowell ; scholars Niall Ferguson and Richard Epstein ; former Speaker of

10302-465: Was shortly convinced that gigantic famine would follow the present war. The steady degeneration of agriculture was obvious. ... I read in one of Andrew D. White's writings that most of the fugitive literature of comment during the French Revolution was lost to history because no one set any value on it at the time, and that without such material it became very difficult or impossible to reconstruct

10404-522: Was the Department on Protecting the Order and Public Peace under the Head of St. Petersburg , set up in 1866 after a failed assassination attempt on Emperor Alexander II , with a staff of 12 investigators. Its street address, Fontanka , 16, was publicly known in the Russian Empire. After another failed assassination attempt, on August 6, 1880, the Emperor, acting on proposals made by Count Loris-Melikov , established

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