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136-457: Edmund Sixtus Muskie (March 28, 1914 – March 26, 1996) was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 58th United States Secretary of State under President Jimmy Carter from 1980 to 1981, a United States Senator from Maine from 1959 to 1980, the 64th Governor of Maine from 1955 to 1959, and a member of the Maine House of Representatives from 1946 to 1951. He

272-562: A namestnichestvo under the control of a namiestnik until 1875, when it became a Guberniya . The government of Congress Poland was outlined in the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815. The emperor of Russia was the official head of state, considered the king of Poland , with the local government headed by the viceroy of the Kingdom of Poland ( Polish : Namiestnik ), Council of State and Administrative Council , in addition to

408-533: A candidate only if he became convinced he was best suited to unify the country. An August 1971 opinion poll showed Muskie outperforming Nixon. In late 1971, Muskie gave an anti-war speech in Providence . The nation was at war in Vietnam and President Richard Nixon 's foreign policy promised to be a major issue in the campaign. United States Secretary of State The United States secretary of state ( SecState )

544-509: A cleaner environment. Occasional speeches on environmental preservation earned him the nickname "Mr. Clean". He served his entire career in the Senate as a member of the Committee on Public Works , a committee he used to execute the majority of his environmental legislation. He served on the Committee on Banking and Currency from 1959 to 1970; the Committee on Government Operations until 1978. As

680-556: A consolation prize for failed presidential candidates. Russian Poland Following the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century, Poland ceased to exist as an independent nation for 123 years. The territory, with its native population, was split among the Habsburg monarchy , the Kingdom of Prussia , and the Russian Empire. After 1804, an equivalent to Congress Poland within

816-508: A double major in history and government. Upon his graduation, he was given a partial merit-based scholarship to Cornell Law School . After his second semester there, his scholarship ran out. As he was preparing to drop out, he heard of an "eccentric millionaire" named William Bingham II who had a habit of randomly and sporadically paying the university costs, mortgages, car loans, and other expenses of those who wrote to him. After Muskie wrote to him about his immigrant origins he secured $ 900 from

952-473: A duty than an opportunity because there was no chance of a Democrat winning." A variety of personal reasons motivated his run. Muskie was deeply in debt owing five thousand dollars in hospital bills and maintained a rising mortgage. At the time of his election, the salary for the Governor of Maine was set at ten thousand dollars annually. While he was campaigning he was offered a position involving full partnership at

1088-488: A hotel in Kennebunk to finance his time at Bates. He would record in his diaries occasional feelings of insecurity among his wealthier Bates peers; Muskie was fearful of being kicked out of the college as a consequence of his socioeconomic status . His situation would gradually improve and he went on to graduate in 1936 as class president and a member of Phi Beta Kappa . Initially intending to major in mathematics he switched to

1224-731: A member of the Public Works Committee, he traveled to the Soviet Union in 1959. He sponsored the Intergovernmental Relations Act , later that year. In 1962, he co-founded the United States Capital Historical Society along with other members of congress. The same year, members of Congress elected him to serve as the first chair of the Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution. In 1963, he was

1360-691: A memorandum on returning to the 1795 resolutions with support from the United Kingdom under George IV , Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson and the British delegate to the Congress, Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh . Following the Congress, Russia gained a larger share of Poland (with Warsaw) and, after crushing an insurrection in 1831 , the Congress Kingdom's autonomy was abolished. Poles faced confiscation of property, deportation, forced military service, and

1496-403: A population of over 10 million and an area of 1 million km . Its population reached 6.1 million by 1870 and 10 million by 1900. The majority of ethnic Poles within the Russian Empire lived in the Congress Kingdom, although some areas outside its borders were also inhabited by strong Polish and Roman Catholic minorities. The Kingdom of Poland largely re-emerged as a result of

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1632-469: A prestigious Rumford law firm that maintained "clients and income that [Muskie] had not achieved in fourteen years of practice in Waterville." His final choice reflected his 'society over self' mentality and decided to pursue the election. He announced his candidacy for the office on April 8, 1954. Muskie ran on a party platform of environmentalism and public investment. His environmental platform argued for

1768-458: A representative of the United States. The secretary communicates issues relating to the U.S. foreign policy to Congress and citizens. The secretary also provides services to U.S. citizens living or traveling abroad such as providing credentials in the form of passports. Doing this, the secretary also ensures the protection of citizens, their property, and interests in foreign countries. What are

1904-576: A reputation for increased spending in public education, subsidized hospitals, modernized state facilities, and cumulatively raised state sale taxes by 1%. He added $ 4 million to infrastructure development focusing on roads and river maintenance. Muskie pushed aggressive economic expansionism . In 1957, he founded the Maine Guarantee Authority which combated economic maturation -related job loss making capital more accessible for business owners. Muskie also sporadically lowered sales tax , increased

2040-694: A senator coincided with an expansion of modern liberalism in the United States . He promoted the 1960s environmental movement which led to the passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Clean Water Act of 1972 . Muskie supported the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , the creation of Martin Luther King Jr. Day , and opposed Richard Nixon 's " Imperial presidency " by advancing New Federalism . Muskie ran with Vice President Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in

2176-519: A small law practice—renamed "Muskie & Glover"—for $ 2,000 in March 1940. He helped write Waterville's first zoning ordinance and was elected secretary of the Zoning Board of Appeals. Jane Frances Gray was born February 12, 1927, in Waterville to Myrtie and Millage Guy Gray. Growing up, she was voted "prettiest in school" in high school and at age 15, started her first job, in a dress shop. At age 18, Gray

2312-525: A way of expanding his law practice, he formally entered politics. Muskie ran against Republican William A. Jones in an election for the Maine House of Representatives for the 110th District. Muskie secured 2,635 votes and won the election to most people's surprise on September 9, 1946. During this time, the Maine Senate was stacked 30-to-3 and the House was stacked 127-to-24 Republicans against Democrats. Muskie

2448-676: A widening of governmental responsibilities, limiting the power of Richard Nixon 's " Imperial Presidency " and advancing New Federalism ideals. He served as the chairman of the Senate Budget Committee through the Ninety-third to the Ninety-sixth Congresses from 1973 to 1980. During this time, Congress founded the Congressional Budget Office in order to challenge Nixon's budget request. Prior to 1974, there

2584-467: Is a member of the executive branch of the federal government and the head of the Department of State . The office holder is the second-highest-ranking member of the president's Cabinet , after the vice president, and ranks fourth in the presidential line of succession ; first amongst cabinet secretaries. Created in 1789 with Thomas Jefferson as its first office holder, the secretary of state represents

2720-1017: Is fourth in line to succeed the presidency , after the vice president , the speaker of the House of Representatives , and the president pro tempore of the Senate . Six past secretaries of state – Jefferson , Madison , Monroe , John Quincy Adams , Van Buren and Buchanan  – have gone on to be elected president. Others, including Henry Clay , Daniel Webster , Lewis Cass , John C. Calhoun , John M. Clayton , William L. Marcy , William Seward , Edward Everett , Jeremiah S. Black , James Blaine , Elihu B. Washburne , Thomas F. Bayard , John Sherman , Walter Q. Gresham , William Jennings Bryan , Philander C. Knox , Charles Evans Hughes , Elihu Root , Cordell Hull , Edmund Muskie , Alexander Haig , John Kerry , and Hillary Clinton have also campaigned as presidential candidates, either before or after their term of office as secretary of state, but were ultimately unsuccessful. The position of secretary of state has therefore been viewed to be

2856-557: Is mostly remembered. The first Polish steam mill was built in 1828 in Warsaw - Solec ; the first textile machine was installed in 1829. Greater use of machines led to production in the form of workshops. The government was also encouraging foreign specialists, mostly Germans , to upkeep larger establishments, or to undertake production. By 1887, 550 of the 29,000 Prussian landowners in Poland were manufacturers. The Germans were also relieved of

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2992-417: Is that Americans, born in this great tradition of humanism , still yield to prejudice and practice discrimination against other Americans. The truth is, having developed patterns and ways of living which reflect these shortcomings and weaknesses, we find it burdensome and difficult to – and all too often unacceptable to – do the uncomfortable things that we all must do to right the wrongs of our society. Before

3128-450: The 1968 Democratic National Convention , he led the debate for the administration plank on Vietnam, which sparked public outrage. On October 15, 1969, he was welcomed to the green at Yale University to address the issues regarding his vote but chose to decline the offer and speak that night at his alma mater, Bates College , in Lewiston , Maine. His decision to do so was widely criticized by

3264-596: The 1972 election , Muskie was viewed as a front-runner for the Democratic presidential nomination. Despite his strong polling, he continued to engage in tiring day-after-day speeches in various parts of the country. When asked during an August 17, 1969 appearance on Meet the Press whether he would be a candidate in 1972, Muskie said it would depend on his being convinced that he could meet the challenges as well as his comfort. On November 8, 1970, Muskie said he would declare himself

3400-416: The 1976 presidential election . Edmund Muskie was sworn into office as U.S. Senator from Maine on January 3, 1959. His first couple of months in the Senate earned a reputation for being combative and often sparred with Majority Leader , Lyndon B. Johnson , who subsequently relegated him to outer seats in the Senate. In the next five years, he gained significant power and influence and was considered among

3536-485: The 64th governor of Maine in 1954 under a reform platform as the first Democratic governor since Louis J. Brann left office in 1937, and only the fifth since 1857. Muskie pressed for economic expansionism and instated environmental provisions. Muskie's actions severed a nearly 100-year Republican stronghold and led to the political insurgency of the Maine Democrats. Muskie's legislative work during his career as

3672-533: The Administrative Council . He could veto the councils' decisions; other than that, his decisions had to be countersigned by the appropriate government minister . The viceroy exercised broad powers and could nominate candidates for most senior government posts (ministers, senators , judges of the High Tribunal, councilors of state, referendaries , bishops , and archbishops ). He had no competence in

3808-528: The Deep South and their 46 votes in the electoral college . Because Agnew seemed a weaker candidate than Muskie, Humphrey remarked that voters' uncertainties about whom to choose between the two major presidential candidates should be resolved by their attitudes toward the vice-presidential candidates. While on the vice-presidential campaign trail in Chattanooga, Tennessee , Muskie was quoted as saying: The truth

3944-493: The Democratic party tomorrow—you cast your vote for trust—not just in leaders or policies—but for trusting your fellow citizens . . . in the ancient traditions of this home for freedom . . . and most of all, for trust in yourself. The Portland Press Herald on November 4, 1970, noted it akin to Franklin D. Roosevelt 's fire-side chats "with video". The speech has been the subject of numerous studies regarding "the dimensions of

4080-661: The Intergovernmental Cooperation Act he said: I am pleased that Senator Muskie could be with us this afternoon. I believe that no man has done more to encourage cooperation among the National Government, the States, and the cities." Also in 1966, Muskie was elected assistant Democratic whip and served as the floor manager for the Clean Water Restoration Act . During 1967 the popular sentiment in

4216-467: The January Uprising broke out but lasted only two years before being crushed. As a direct result, any remaining separate status of the kingdom was removed and the political entity was directly incorporated into the Russian Empire. The unofficial name Privislinsky Krai ( Russian : Привислинский Край ), i.e., 'Vistula Land', replaced 'Kingdom of Poland' as the area's official name and the area became

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4352-671: The Lublin , Łódź , Masovian , Podlaskie and Holy Cross Voivodeships of Poland as well as southwestern Lithuania and a small part of the Grodno District of Belarus. The Kingdom of Poland effectively came to an end with the Great Retreat of Russian forces in 1915 and was succeeded by the Government General of Warsaw , established by the Germans. In 1917, part of this was renamed as

4488-635: The Maine State Legislature authorized him to take extraordinary action to control the state's pollution standards. He used this authority to sign the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Compact on August 31, 1955. This compact required member states to pay for anti-pollution measures collectively. Conservative members of the Chamber of Commerce fought back against Muskie in his attempt to allocate money to

4624-458: The Polish nobility deeply valued personal freedom. In reality, the kings had absolute power and the formal title of Autocrat , and wanted no restrictions on their rule. All opposition to the emperor of Russia was suppressed and the law was disregarded at will by Russian officials. Though the absolute rule demanded by Russia was difficult to establish due to Poland's liberal traditions and institutions,

4760-504: The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the " Superfund ". In 1968, Muskie was nominated for vice president on the Democratic ticket with sitting Vice President Hubert Humphrey . Humphrey asked Muskie to be his running mate because Muskie, in addition to being of Polish Catholic heritage, had a more reserved personality that would contrast well with Humphrey's more ebullient style. The Humphrey-Muskie ticket narrowly lost

4896-610: The Sejm . In theory, Congress Poland possessed one of the most liberal governments of the time in Europe , but in practice, the area was a puppet state of the Russian Empire. The liberal provisions of the constitution, and the scope of the autonomy, were often disregarded by the Russian officials. Polish remained an official language until the mid-1860s when it was replaced by Russian. This resulted in bilingual street signs and documents, however,

5032-704: The USS ; YP-422 for a month. In June, he was assigned to the USS  De Grasse  (ID-1217) at Fort Schuyler in New York, where he worked as an indoctrinator . In November 1943, Muskie was promoted to Deck Officer . He trained for two weeks in Miami, Florida at the Submarine Chaser Training Center . After that, Muskie was relocated to Columbus , Ohio to study reconnaissance in February 1944. In March, he

5168-518: The United States Naval Academy . He left his law practice running so "his name would continue to circulate in Waterville" while he was gone. He trained as an apprentice seaman for six weeks before being assigned the rank of midshipman . In January 1943, Muskie attended diesel engineering school for sixteen weeks before being assigned to First Naval District , Boston in May. Muskie worked on

5304-615: The V-12 Navy College Training Program to prepare men under the age of 28 for the eventual outbreak of World War II . Muskie formally registered for the draft in October 1940 and was formally called to deck officer training on March 26, 1942. At 28, he was assigned to work as a diesel engineer in the Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School . On September 11, 1942, Muskie was called to Annapolis , Maryland to attend

5440-487: The Warsaw Military District ( Polish : Warszawski Okręg Wojskowy , Russian : Варшавский Военный Округ ). The governor-general answered directly to the emperor and exercised much broader powers than had the "namiestnik". In particular, he controlled all the military forces in the region and oversaw the judicial systems (he could impose death sentences without trial). He could also issue " declarations with

5576-584: The minimum wage and furthered labor protections leading to a marked increase in consumer spending . He amended the constitution of Maine in order divert $ 20 million in public funds into private investment. He increased subsidies to expensive institutions such as public primary and secondary schools as well as universities. Although initially founded in 1836, the Maine State Museum was closed and reopened six times before Muskie permanently endowed it in 1958. His governorship exploited multi-factionalism in

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5712-707: The release of 52 Americans , thus concluding the Iran hostage crisis . He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Carter in 1981 and has been honored with a public holiday in Maine since 1987. Edmund Sixtus Muskie was born on March 28, 1914, in Rumford , Maine. He was born after his parents' first child, Irene (born 1912), and before his brother Eugene (born 1918) and three sisters, Lucy (born 1916), Elizabeth (born 1923), and Frances (born 1921). His father, Stephen Marciszewski,

5848-493: The " Vistula Land " (Russian: Привислинский Край). Following the defeat of the November Uprising its separate institutions and administrative arrangements were abolished as part of increased Russification to be more closely integrated with the Russian Empire. However, even after this formalized annexation, the territory retained some degree of distinctiveness and continued to be referred to informally as Congress Poland until

5984-576: The 1947 election to become Mayor of Waterville, against banker Russel W. Squire. Perhaps due to incumbency advantage , Muskie lost the election with 2,853 votes, 434 votes behind Squire. Some historians believe that his loss had to do with his inability to gain traction with Franco-American voters. Muskie continued his political involvement locally by securing a position on the Waterville Board of Zoning Adjustment in 1948 and stayed in this part-time position until he became governor. He later returned to

6120-429: The 1968 presidential election, losing the popular vote by 0.7 percentage point—one of the narrowest margins in U.S. history . He would go on to run in the 1972 presidential election , where he secured 1.84 million votes in the primaries , coming in fourth out of 15 contesters. The release of the forged " Canuck letter " derailed his campaign and sullied his public image with Americans of French-Canadian descent . After

6256-628: The Austrian Empire was the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , also commonly referred to as " Austrian Poland ". The area incorporated into Prussia initially also held autonomy as the Grand Duchy of Posen outside of German Confederation , but later was demoted to merely a Prussian province (the Province of Posen ), and was subsequently annexed in 1866 into the North German Confederation ,

6392-557: The Clean Water Act). He was the floor manager for the discussion and led to its passage in 1965 and its successful amendments in 1970. Alongside President Johnson's Great Society and War on Poverty programs, Muskie drafted the Model Cities Bill which eventually passed both houses of Congress in 1966. Previously, combative with Johnson, Muskie began developing a more cooperative relationship with him. During Johnson's signing of

6528-536: The Democratic party and Yale University officials. From 1967 to 1969, he served as the chair of Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee . He voted against the appointment of Clement Haynsworth to the U.S. Supreme Court . His third term began in 1970 by co-sponsoring the McGovern-Hatfield resolution to limit military intervention in the Vietnam War. During this time Harold Carswell was seeking appointment to

6664-530: The Great Seal, performance of protocol functions for the White House , and the drafting of certain proclamations. The secretary also negotiates with the individual states over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries. Under federal law, the resignation of a president or of a vice president is valid only if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the secretary of state. Accordingly,

6800-416: The House to start his second term in 1948 as Minority Leader against heavy Republican opposition. Muskie was appointed the chairman of the platform committee during the 1949 Maine Democratic Convention. During the convention, he brought together a variety of the political elite of Maine—notably Frank M. Coffin and Victor Hunt Harding—to plan a comeback for the party. On February 8, 1951, Muskie resigned from

6936-506: The Kingdom of Poland lost its semi-independent status and was integrated much more closely with the Russian Empire. This was formalized through the issuing of the Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland by the Emperor in 1832, which abolished the constitution, army and legislative assembly. Over the next 30 years, a series of measures bound Congress Poland ever more closely to Russia. In 1863

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7072-602: The Maine House of Representatives to become acting director for the Maine Office of Price Stabilization . He moved to Portland soon after and was assigned the inflation-control and price-ceiling divisions. His job required him to move across Maine to spread word about economic incentives which he used to increase his name recognition. He served as the regional director at the Office of Price Stabilization from 1951 to 1952. Upon leaving

7208-502: The Office he was asked to join the Democratic National Committee as a member; he served on the committee from 1952 to 1956. In April 1953, while working on renovations for his family home in Waterville, Muskie broke through a balcony railing, falling down two flights of stairs. He landed on his back, knocked unconscious. He was rushed to the hospital, where he remained unconscious for two days. Doctors believed that Muskie

7344-450: The Office of Price Stabilization, he officially launched his bid in the 1954 Maine gubernatorial race as a Democrat. Burton M. Cross , the Republican incumbent governor, was seeking reelection. Had he won, he would have been the fifth consecutive Governor to be reelected. Throughout the election Muskie was viewed as the underdog because of the Republican stronghold in Maine . Muskie acknowledged this himself by saying, "[this is] more as

7480-523: The Qualifications of a Secretary of State? He ought to be a Man of universal Reading in Laws, Governments, History. Our whole terrestrial Universe ought to be summarily comprehended in his Mind. — John Adams Secretaries of state also have domestic responsibilities. Most of the historical domestic functions of the Department of State were gradually transferred to other agencies by the late 19th century as part of various administrative reforms and restructurings. Those that remain include storage and use of

7616-424: The Republican Party leading to a vast expansion of the Democratic Party in Maine . From 1954 to 1974, the party doubled in size, while the Republican Party steadily decreased from 262,367 to 227,828 registered members. Numerous state politicians mimicked his political style to push their programs through various local governments and garnered electoral success. His executive appointments of moderate politicians shifted

7752-408: The Russian rule there ended as a result of the advance by the armies of the Central Powers in 1915 during World War I . The kingdom was 128,500 km in area and originally had a population of approximately 3.3 million. The new state would be one of the smallest Polish states ever, smaller than the preceding Duchy of Warsaw and much smaller than the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which had

7888-410: The U.S. Supreme Court. Muskie voted against him and Carswell failed the confirmation process. Muskie also proposed a six-month ban on domestic and Soviet Union development of nuclear technologies to taper the nuclear arms race . As chair of the congressional environmental committee, he and fellow committee members including Howard Baker introduced the Clean Air Act of 1970 , which was co-written by

8024-417: The U.S. was anti-war , which prompted Muskie to visit Vietnam to inform his political stance in 1968. Prior to his visiting the country, he debated with a congressman on a pro-war platform. After the trip, he became a leading voice for the anti-war movement and entered into the ongoing debate by speaking at the year's Democratic Convention. His speech was followed by "tens of thousands of protestors surrounded

8160-472: The United States to foreign countries, and is therefore considered analogous to a minister of foreign affairs in other countries. The secretary of state is nominated by the president of the United States and, following a confirmation hearing before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations , is confirmed by the Senate . The secretary of state, along with the secretary of the treasury , secretary of defense , and attorney general , are generally regarded as

8296-423: The United States' involvement in the Vietnam War and rising unpopularity of incumbent president Richard Nixon . On the night of poll-opening Muskie gave a nationwide, 14 minute speech to addressed American voters following a similar address by Nixon. Dubbed the " election eve speech " it spoke to American exceptionalism and against "torrents of falsehood and insinuation". The speech was considered bipartisan and

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8432-403: The Vistulan Country and made part of the Southwestern Krai of the Russian Empire . Despite the fact that the economic situation varied at times, Congress Poland was one of the largest economies in the world. In the mid 1800s the region became heavily industrialized , however, agriculture still maintained a major role in the economy. In addition, the export of wheat , rye and other crops

8568-417: The administrative structure of Poland (now de facto the Vistulan Country ) closer to that of the Russian Empire. It divided larger governorates into smaller ones, introduced the gmina (a new lower-level entity), and restructured the existing five governorates into 10. The 1912 reform created a new governorate – Kholm Governorate – from parts of the Sedlets and Lublin Governorates . It was split off from

8704-446: The beginning of Polish sugar refineries. The use of iron cutters and plows was also favoured among the farmers. During the January Uprising the occupying authorities sought to deprive peasant insurgents of their popularity among landed gentry . Taxes were raised and the overall economic situation of commoners worsened. The noblemen and landowners were, on the other hand, provided with more privileges, rights and even financial support in

8840-427: The bill and stopped it from becoming law. However, after further campaigning by Muskie, the Senate and House of Representatives passed the bill 247–23 to override Nixon's veto. The bill was historic in that it established the regulation of pollutants in the federal and state waters of the U.S., created extended authority for the Environmental Protection Agency , and created water health standards. Also in 1971, Muskie

8976-413: The bullet holes and attend a funeral of one of the victims. Critics in Maine described his actions as "rash and self serving" but Muskie publicly expressed no regret for his actions. At an event in Los Angeles, he publicly stated his support for several black empowerment movements in California, which garnered the attention of numerous media outlets, and black city councilman Thomas Bradley. In 1970, Muskie

9112-414: The closure of their own universities. The Congress was important enough in the creation of the state to cause the new country to be informally named for it. The kingdom lost its status as a sovereign state in 1831 and the administrative divisions were reorganized. It was sufficiently distinct that its name remained in official Russian use, although in the later years of Russian rule it was replaced with

9248-441: The committee's staff director Leon Billings and minority staff director Tom Jorling. As part of the act, he told the automobile industry it would need to reduce its tailpipe air pollution emissions by 90% by 1977. He also co-wrote amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Act, more commonly known as the Clean Water Act , and urged his fellow Congress members to adopt it, saying "The country was once famous for its rivers ... But today,

9384-403: The compact and greatly reduced the amount paid. One of the chief concerns of Muskie during this time was economic development. Maine's population was aging, putting pressure on welfare services . He expanded certain programs and cut down on others in order rebalance state spending. Before leaving office Muskie signed an executive order extending the gubernatorial term to four years. He expanded

9520-421: The company FOS ( Fabryka Przyrządów Optycznych -"Factory of Optical Equipment") in Warsaw. It was the only firm in the Russian Empire which crafted and produced cameras , telescopes , objectives and stereoscopes . Following the outbreak of World War I the factory was moved to St. Petersburg . In the late 1890s and early 1900s, Russia experienced a coal crisis marked by coal shortages and high prices. This

9656-400: The construction of railway lines and bridges, gained priority in the entire Russian market. Although the economic and industrial progress occurred rapidly, most of the farms, called folwarks , chose to rely on serfs and paid workforce. Only a few experimented by obtaining proper machinery and plowing equipment from England . New crops were being cultivated like sugar beet , which marked

9792-564: The convention and violent clashes with police carried on for five days." He wrote to Johnson personally asserting his position on the Vietnam War . He made the case that the U.S. ought to withdraw from Vietnam as quickly as possible. Months later, he wrote to the president again urging him to end the bombing of North Vietnam . During the same year, he traveled with other Senators to the Republic of South Vietnam to validate their elections. Later, at

9928-399: The country became governed by viceroys , and later divided into governorates (provinces). Thus, from the start, Polish autonomy remained little more than fiction. The capital was located in Warsaw , which towards the beginning of the 20th century became the Russian Empire's third-largest city after St. Petersburg and Moscow . The moderately multicultural population of Congress Poland

10064-502: The country have had their motives questioned and their patriotism doubted. It has been led . . . inspired . . . and guided . . . from the highest offices in the land. ... We cannot make America small. ... Ordinarily that division is not between parties, but between men and ideas. But this year the leaders of the Republican party have intentionally made that line a party line. They have confronted you with exactly that choice. Thus—in voting for

10200-632: The department. The stated duties of the secretary of state are to supervise the United States foreign service and immigration policy and administer the Department of State. The secretary must also advise the president on U.S. foreign matters such as the appointment of diplomats and ambassadors, advising the president of the dismissal and recall of these people. The secretary of state can conduct negotiations, interpret, and terminate treaties relating to foreign policy. The secretary also can participate in international conferences, organizations, and agencies as

10336-560: The efforts of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , a Pole who aimed to resurrect the Polish state in alliance with Russia . The Kingdom of Poland was one of the few contemporary constitutional monarchies in Europe, with the emperor of Russia serving as the self-proclaimed king of Poland . Theoretically, the Polish Kingdom in its 1815 form was a semi-autonomous state in personal union with Russia through

10472-449: The election campaign which is coming to a close. In the heat of our campaigns, we have all become accustomed to a little anger and exaggeration. That is our system. It has worked for almost two hundred years—longer than any other political system in the world. But in these elections of 1970, something has gone wrong. There has been name-calling and deception of almost unprecedented volume. Honorable men have been slandered. Faithful servants of

10608-567: The election, Muskie returned to the Senate, where he gave the 1976 State of the Union Response . Muskie served as first chairman of the new Senate Budget Committee from 1975 to 1980, where he established the United States budget process . Upon his resignation from the Senate, he became the 58th U.S. Secretary of State under President Carter. Muskie's tenure as Secretary of State was one of the shortest in modern history. His department negotiated

10744-506: The entire Republican establishment in the state to the left. This shift garnered comparisons to Hubert Humphrey 's influence in Minnesota and George McGovern 's impact in South Dakota . During his last months as governor he changed his office's term from two years to four years. Shortly before leaving office he moved Maine's general election date from September to November conclusively ending

10880-478: The establishment of the Maine Department of Conservation to "have jurisdiction of forestry, inland fish and game, sea and shore fisheries , mineral, water, and other natural resources " and the creation of anti-pollution legislation. He stressed the need for "a two-party" approach to Maine politics with resonated with both Democratic and Republican voters wishing to see change. Muskie's central campaign slogan

11016-575: The fate of the Duchy of Warsaw was dependent on Russia. Prussia insisted on the duchy being completely eliminated. After Russian troops reached Paris in 1812, Tsar Alexander I intended to annex the duchy and parts of Lithuanian lands which were historically in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . Both Austria and the United Kingdom , however, disapproved strongly of the idea, Austria issuing

11152-491: The first Democrat to be elected chief executive of Maine since Louis J. Brann in 1934. His election has been viewed as a causal link to the end of Republican political dominance in Maine and the rise of the Democratic Party . After his win, he was asked by other Democrats running in elections outside of Maine to make a series of campaign stops. Muskie was inaugurated as the 64th Governor of Maine on January 6, 1955. He

11288-499: The first to sponsor a new Act to regulate air pollution. The Clean Air Act of 1963 was written and developed by Muskie and his aide Leon Billings. His first major accomplishment was the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . He assembled more than one hundred votes for the proposed legislation eventually passing it. Also during 1964, he was critical of J. Edgar Hoover 's management of the Federal Bureau of investigation . Muskie

11424-462: The force of law," which could alter existing laws. The Administrative Council ( Polish : Rada Administracyjna ) was a part of the Council of State of the kingdom. Introduced by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, it was composed of five ministers, special nominees of the king and the viceroy of the Kingdom of Poland. The council executed the king's will and ruled in the cases outside

11560-426: The form of bribery . The aim of this was to weaken their support for the rebellion against the Russian Empire. Congress Poland was the largest supplier of zinc in Europe. The development of the zinc industry took place at the beginning of the 19th century. It was mostly caused by the significant increase of demand for zinc mainly in industrialized countries of Western Europe . In 1899, Aleksander Ginsberg founded

11696-480: The four most crucial Cabinet members because of the importance of their respective departments. Secretary of state is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level $ 246,400, as of January 2024. The current secretary of state is Antony Blinken , who was confirmed on January 26, 2021, by the Senate by a vote of 78–22. The secretary of state originates from

11832-427: The full implementation of Cyrillic script into the Polish language failed. The office of " namiestnik " was introduced in Poland by the 1815 constitution of Congress Poland . The viceroy was chosen by the king from among the noble citizens of the Russian Empire or the Kingdom of Poland. The viceroy supervised the entire public administration and, in the monarch's absence, chaired the Council of State , as well as

11968-519: The government under the Articles of Confederation . The Congress of the Confederation established the Department of Foreign Affairs in 1781 and created the office of secretary of foreign affairs. After the Constitution of the United States was ratified, the 1st United States Congress reestablished the department, renaming it the Department of State, and created the office of secretary of state to lead

12104-489: The independence of the kingdom lasted only 15 years; initially Alexander I used the title King of Poland and was obligated to observe the provisions of the constitution. However, in time the situation changed and he granted the viceroy, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich , almost dictatorial powers. Very soon after Congress of Vienna resolutions were signed, Russia ceased to respect them. In 1819, Alexander I abolished freedom of

12240-536: The islands for the majority of summer 1944. In January 1945, the ship engaged and eventually sank a Japanese cargo ship headed for Taroa Island . After a few more months of escorting ships to and from the two islands, the ship was decommissioned . He was discharged from the Navy on December 18, 1945. Muskie returned to Maine in January 1946 and began rebuilding his law practice. Convinced by others to run for political office as

12376-528: The man allowing him to finance his final years at Cornell. While in law school he was elected to Phi Alpha Delta and went on to graduate cum laude , in 1939. Upon graduating from Cornell, Muskie was admitted to the Massachusetts Bar in 1939. He then worked as a high school substitute teacher while he was studying for the Maine Bar examination; he passed in 1940. Muskie moved to Waterville and purchased

12512-462: The minister's competence and prepared projects for the Council of State. The administrative divisions of the kingdom changed several times over its history, and various smaller reforms were also carried out which either changed the smaller administrative units or merged/split various subdivisions. Immediately after its creation in 1815, the Kingdom of Poland was divided into departments , a relic from

12648-444: The most effective legislators in the Senate. However, increased power and influence prompted supporters in Maine to label him "an honorary Kennedy", alluding to the indifference John F. Kennedy had to Massachusetts when first gaining political traction. Muskie used the influence gain in his first two terms to push a vast expansion of environmentalism in the late 1950s and early 1960s. His specific goals were to curb pollution and provide

12784-529: The notion that " as Maine goes, so goes the nation ". This was attempted thirty-six times before Muskie brought about a constitutional amendment that moved the date. Muskie resigned on January 2, 1959, to take his seat in the United States Senate after the 1958 Senate election . He was succeeded by Republican Robert Haskell in an interim capacity until the Governor-elect, Democrat Clinton Clauson ,

12920-416: The performing arts, and was elected student body president in his senior year. He would go on to graduate in 1932 at the top of his class as valedictorian . A 1931 edition of the school's newspaper noted him with the following: "when you see a head and shoulders towering over you in the halls of Stephen's, you should know that your eyes are feasting on the future President of the United States." Influenced by

13056-414: The political excitement of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's election to the White House , he attended Bates College in Lewiston , Maine. While at college, Muskie was a successful member of the debating team, participated in several sports, and was elected to student government . Although he received a small scholarship and New Deal subsidies, he had to work during the summers as a dishwasher and bellhop at

13192-502: The popular vote to Richard Nixon and Spiro Agnew . Humphrey and Muskie received 42.7% of the popular vote and carried 13 states and 191 electoral votes ; Nixon and Agnew won 43.4% of the popular vote and carried 32 states and 301 electoral votes, while the third party ticket of George Wallace and Curtis LeMay , running as candidates of the American Independent Party , took 14% of the popular vote and took five states in

13328-551: The predecessor of the German Empire . The Congress Kingdom of Poland was theoretically granted considerable political autonomy by the liberal constitution . However, its rulers, the Russian emperors , generally disregarded any restrictions on their power. It was, therefore, little more than a puppet state in a personal union with the Russian Empire. The autonomy was severely curtailed following uprisings in 1830–31 and 1863 , as

13464-534: The press and introduced preventive censorship . Resistance to Russian control began in the 1820s. Russian secret police commanded by Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev started the persecution of Polish secret organizations and in 1821 the King ordered the abolition of Freemasonry , which represented Poland's patriotic traditions. Beginning in 1825, the sessions of the Sejm were held in secret. Alexander I's successor, Nicholas I

13600-433: The realms of finances and foreign policy; his military competence varied. The office of "namiestnik" or viceroy was never abolished; however, the last "namiestnik" was Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert von Berg , who served from 1863 to his death in 1874. No "namiestnik" was named to replace him; however, the role of "namestnik"— viceroy of the former kingdom passed to the governor-general of Warsaw —or, to be more specific, of

13736-514: The resignations of President Richard Nixon and of Vice President Spiro Agnew were formalized in instruments delivered to then-Secretary of State Henry Kissinger . Although they have historically decreased over time, Congress may occasionally add to the responsibilities of the secretary of state. One such instance occurred in 2014, when Congress passed the Sean and David Goldman International Child Abduction Prevention and Return Act which mandated actions

13872-423: The rivers of this country serve as little more than sewers to the seas. ... The danger to health, the environmental damage, the economic loss can be anywhere." The bill enjoyed bipartisan support in the U.S. Congress and was passed by the House on November 29, 1971, and the Senate on March 29, 1972. While congressional support was enough to enact it into law President Richard Nixon exercised his executive veto on

14008-406: The rule of the Russian emperor. The state possessed the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland , one of the most liberal in 19th-century Europe, a Sejm (parliament) responsible to the king capable of voting laws, an independent army , currency , budget , penal code and a customs boundary separating it from the rest of Russian lands. Poland also had democratic traditions ( Golden Liberty ) and

14144-513: The secretary of state must take in order to facilitate the return of abducted children from nations who are party to the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction . As the highest-ranking member of the cabinet, the secretary of state is the third-highest official of the executive branch of the U.S. federal government, after the president and vice president, and

14280-462: The short-lived Kingdom of Poland , a client state of the Central Powers , which had a Regency Council instead of a king. Although the official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland ( Polish : Królestwo Polskie ; Russian: Царство Польское ), in order to distinguish it from other Kingdoms of Poland , it is often referred to as "Congress Poland". The Congress Kingdom of Poland

14416-424: The state's previous Democratic Senator having been appointed by the legislature. He was one of the 12 Democrats who overtook Republican incumbents and established the party as the party-of-house during the election cycle. The New York Times reported that during this election that the absentee ballots requested for Democrats increased considerable signaling voter-discontent with Republican ideology . This election

14552-499: The structure of the Russian Empire , with the introduction of guberniyas ( governorate , Polish spelling gubernia ). In 1842 the powiats were renamed okręgs , and the obwóds were renamed powiats. In 1844 several governorates were merged with others, and some others were renamed; five governorates remained. In 1867, following the failure of the January Uprising , further reforms were instituted which were designed to bring

14688-491: The tax burden. This allowed to create one of the largest European textile centres in Łódź and in surrounding towns like Ozorków and Zduńska Wola . These small and initially insignificant settlements later developed into large and multicultural cities, where Germans and Jews were the majority in the population. With the abolition of border customs in 1851 and further economic growth, Polish cities were gaining wealth and importance. Most notably, Warsaw , being associated with

14824-441: The televised public address as an emerging rhetorical genre of pervasive influence in contemporary affairs". In his fourth and final election , Muskie ran against Republican Robert A. G. Monks in 1976; he won 60% of the vote compared to Monk's 40%. The elections coincided with the election of Jimmy Carter as president leading to a large influx of Democratic support, though Carter lost Maine to incumbent President Gerald Ford in

14960-564: The territory comprising Baxter State Park by 3,569 acres and purchased 40 acres (1.7 million ft) of Cape Elizabeth from the federal government for $ 28,000. He also created the Department of Development of Commerce and Industry and Maine Industrial Building Authority. In February 1955, he was briefed on atomic energy power by the United States Atomic Energy Commission leading him to limit the expansion of atomic-powered electrical facilities. On September 10, 1956, Muskie

15096-480: The times of the French-dominated Duchy of Warsaw . On 16 January 1816 the administrative division was reformed, with the departments being replaced with more traditionally Polish voivodeships (of which there were eight), obwóds and powiats . On 7 March 1837, in the aftermath of the November Uprising earlier that decade, the administrative division was reformed again, bringing Congress Poland closer to

15232-411: The town. However, after eighteen months of courting Gray and her family, she agreed to marry him in a private ceremony in 1948. Gray and Muskie had five children: Stephen (born 1949), Ellen (born 1950), Melinda (born 1956), Martha (born 1958, d. 2006), and Edmund Jr. (born 1961). The Muskies lived in a yellow cottage at Kennebunk Beach while they lived in Maine. In June 1940, President Roosevelt created

15368-458: Was Polish ; he spoke it as his only language until age 4. He began learning English soon after and eventually lost fluency in his mother language. In his youth he was an avid fisherman, hunter, and swimmer. He felt as though his given name was "odd" so he went by Ed throughout his life. Muskie was shy and anxious in his early life but maintained a sizable number of friends. Muskie attended Stephens High School, where he played baseball, participated in

15504-478: Was "Maine Needs A Change" referencing the multi-year Republican stronghold. He criticized the Republican Party for neglecting the environment, failing to restart the economy, underutilizing skilled labor forces, and ignoring public investment. He successively won the Democratic gubernatorial nomination, and then the general election by a majority popular vote on September 13, 1954. The upset victory made Muskie

15640-674: Was asked to join the Senate Foreign Relations Committee ; he traveled to Europe and the Middle East in this capacity. After concluding his 1968 campaign for the White House he returned to the Senate. While in Chattanooga, the shooting of two black students at Jackson State College in 1970 by the Mississippi State Police, prompted Muskie to hire a jet airliner to take approximately one hundred people to see

15776-567: Was assigned to the committees on federal and military relations during his first year. He advocated for bipartisanship , which won him widespread support across political parties. On October 17, 1946, Muskie's law practice sustained a large fire, costing him an estimated $ 2,300 in damages. However, a yearly stipend of $ 800 and help from other business leaders who were affected by the fire quickly restarted his practice. Muskie's work with city ordinances in Waterville prompted locals to ask him to run in

15912-584: Was born and raised in Jasionówka , Russian Poland and worked as an estate manager for minor Russian nobility . He immigrated to America in 1903 and changed his name to Muskie from "Marciszewski" in 1914. He worked as a master tailor and Muskie's mother, Josephine ( née Czarnecka) worked as a housewife . She was born to a Polish-American family in Buffalo , New York. Muskie's parents married in 1911, and Josephine moved to Rumford soon after. Muskie's first language

16048-506: Was chosen to articulate the Democratic party's message to congressional voters before the midterm elections. His national stature was raised as a major candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1972. In 1973, he gave the Democratic response to Nixon's State of the Union address . During this time, he was appointed the chair of the intergovernmental relations subcommittee. Considered "a backwater assignment", Muskie used it to advocate for

16184-402: Was considered the largest single-party gain in the Senate's history. He ran for a second term in 1964 , running against Republican Clifford McIntire . Muskie won with 67% of the vote. His third campaign and election to the Senate occurred in 1970. During the 1970 elections , Muskie secured 62% of the vote against Republican Neil S. Bishop 's 38%. The elections were seen as tumultuous due to

16320-561: Was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw , a French client state, at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 when the great powers reorganized Europe following the Napoleonic wars . The kingdom was created from parts of the Polish territory that had been partitioned between Austria and Prussia which had been transformed into the Duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807. After Napoleon's 1812 defeat,

16456-550: Was crowned King of Poland on 24 May 1829 in Warsaw, but he declined to swear to abide by the Constitution and continued to limit the independence of the Polish kingdom. Nicholas' rule promoted the idea of Official Nationality, consisting of Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality. In relation to Poles, those ideas meant assimilation: turning them into loyal subjects through gradual religious and cultural conversion. The principle of Orthodoxy

16592-532: Was estimated at 9,402,253 inhabitants in 1897. It was mostly composed of Poles , Polish Jews , ethnic Germans , Ukrainians , Lithuanians , and a small Russian minority. The predominant religion was Roman Catholicism and the official language used within the state was Polish until the failed January Uprising (1863) when Russian became co-official as a consequence. Yiddish and German were widely spoken by their native speakers. The territory of Congress Poland roughly corresponds to modern-day Kalisz Region and

16728-442: Was hired to be a bookkeeper and saleswoman in an exclusive haute couture boutique in Waterville. While there, a mutual friend tried to introduce her to Muskie while he was working in the city as a lawyer. She had Gray model the dresses in the shop window while he was walking to work. Muskie came into the shop one day and invited her to a gala event. At the time, she was 19 and he was 32; their difference in age stirred controversy in

16864-477: Was in a coma, so they gave him comatose-specific medication which caused him to regain consciousness but start to hallucinate . Muskie tried to jump out of the hospital window, but was restrained by staff members. After a couple of months, through physical rehabilitation and corrective braces, he was able to walk once more. After establishing a prominent presence in the Maine State Legislature and with

17000-465: Was inaugurated. Muskie was officially succeeded by Clauson on January 6, 1959. Muskie's first contestation for the Senate of the United States was in 1958 . He announced his intent to challenge incumbent Republican Senator Frederick G. Payne on March 20, 1958. Muskie won the election with 61% of the vote against Payne's 39%. Muskie's victory made him the first Democrat elected to the Senate in Maine, with

17136-606: Was no formal process for establishing a federal budget so Congress founded the office under the auspices of the Senate Budget Committee. As chairman, Muskie presided over, formulated, and approved of the creation of the United States budget process . In 1977, he amended Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 along with others, to pass the Clean Water Act of 1977 . These new additions incorporated "non-degradation" or "clean growth" policies intended to limit negative externalities . In 1978, he made minor adjustments to

17272-531: Was not until 1822 when Prince Francis Xavier Drucki-Lubecki negotiated to open the Polish market to the world. He also tried to introduce appropriate protective duties. A large and profitable investment was the construction of the Augustów Canal connecting Narew and Neman Rivers, which allowed to bypass Danzig (Gdańsk) and high Prussian tariffs . Drucki-Lubecki also founded the Bank Polski , for which he

17408-541: Was promoted to Lieutenant (junior grade) . Muskie was stationed at California's Mare Island in April temporarily before formally engaging in active duty warfare. Muskie began his active duty tour aboard the destroyer escort USS  Brackett  (DE-41) . His vessel was in charge of protecting U.S. convoys traveling from the Marshal and Gilbert Islands from Japanese submarines . The Brackett escorted ships to and from

17544-448: Was put in place, and efforts were made to change the relations between the state and the individual. All of this led to discontent and resistance among the Polish population. In January 1831, the Sejm deposed Nicholas I as King of Poland in response to his repeated curtailing of its constitutional rights. Nicholas reacted by sending Russian troops into Poland, resulting in the November Uprising . Following an 11-month military campaign,

17680-471: Was re-elected Governor of Maine with 180,254 votes (59% of the vote) against Republican Willis A. Trafton . He won 14 of the 16 counties. He began his second term by aggressively enforcing environmental standards. In 1957, he sanctioned a $ 29 million highway bond . This bond funded the largest road construction ever undertaken by Maine. The highway included 91 bridges and was extended in 1960 and 1967 by Interstate 95 . During his tenure as Governor he retained

17816-511: Was significant in stabilizing the financial output. An important trade partner of Congress Poland was Great Britain , which imported goods in large amounts. Since agriculture was equivalent to 70% of the national income, the most important economic transformations included the establishment of mines and the textile industry; the development of these sectors brought more profit and higher tax revenues. The beginnings were difficult due to floods and an intense diplomatic relationship with Prussia . It

17952-528: Was the Democratic Party 's nominee for vice president in the 1968 presidential election . Born in Rumford , Maine, he worked as a lawyer for two years before serving in the United States Naval Reserve from 1942 to 1945 during World War II . Upon his return, Muskie served in the Maine State Legislature from 1946 to 1951, and unsuccessfully ran for mayor of Waterville . Muskie was elected

18088-526: Was the result of the special role it played in the Russian Empire, as the Church was in fact becoming a department of state, and other religions discriminated against; for instance, papal bulls could not be read in the largely Catholic kingdom of Poland without agreement from the Russian government. The rule of Nicholas also meant the end of political traditions in Poland; democratic institutions were removed, an appointed—rather than elected—centralized administration

18224-419: Was the state's first Roman Catholic governor. Shortly after his assumption of the office, the next election cycle stacked the legislature with a 4-to-1 Republican-Democrat ratio against Muskie. Through bipartisanship and his aggressive personality he managed to pass the majority of his party platform. Constituents pressured him to more aggressively pursue water control and anti-pollution legislation. In August,

18360-610: Was upset by its "overzealous surveillance and its director's intemperance". Muskie also sponsored the construction of the Roosevelt Campobello International Park near Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's New Brunswick estate. Due to its international nature, Muskie was asked to chair a joint U.S.-Canada commission to maintain the park. In 1965, he was again sponsored the Water Quality Act (later to be known as

18496-506: Was well received by both parties. Political analysts believed that the speech influenced voting patterns during the election as there were thirty million listeners. Commentators received the speech as "essentially evangelical" and indicative of "a volcanic private temper but a soothing public manner". The most famous passage from the speech was widely commented on by the public for its biting nature and critique of " politics of fear ": I am speaking from Cape Elizabeth , Maine to discuss with you

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