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34-639: On September 14, 1936, 28-year-old Dorothea Palmer was arrested in Eastview (now Vanier, Ontario ), where a large number of people of French-Canadian or Irish ancestry made up the town's population of about 4,000. Palmer was charged under section 207 of the Criminal Code for possessing and distributing materials and pamphlets related to birth control. As she was working for the Kitchener-based Parents' Information Bureau (PIB), her arrest could have led to

68-567: A pamphlet . Palmer was acquitted on March 17, 1937 when her actions were deemed to have been carried out in the interest of the public good or pro bono publico. Palmer is honoured for her role in advancing family planning in Canada . Palmer was born in England in 1908. Palmer immigrated to Canada in the mid-1920s from England, where she had trained in Sheffield as a social worker. She owned and operated

102-865: A bookstore called the Egoist Book Shop, with her husband Gordon Ferguson at the corner of O'Connor and Laurier , in Ottawa , Ontario . She also began working on behalf of the Parents' Information Bureau (PIB) in 1936. Funded by A. R. Kaufman , the wealthy owner of the Kaufman Rubber Company in Kitchener , Ontario, and prominent eugenics supporter, the PIB distributed information about family planning and birth control. The organization employed roughly 50 people like Palmer in cities across Canada. Her participation in

136-542: A contraceptive, spermicide may be used alone. However, the pregnancy rate experienced by couples using only spermicide is higher than that of couples using other methods. Usually, spermicides are combined with contraceptive barrier methods such as diaphragms , condoms , cervical caps , and sponges . Combined methods are believed to result in lower pregnancy rates than either method alone. Spermicides are typically unscented, clear, unflavored, non-staining, and lubricative. The most common active ingredient of spermicides

170-434: A damn fool woman to do it, well okay. That's the way of men, isn't it? If it's anything tough, find a good woman to do it." Due to the public attention and criticism that accompanied the trial, Palmer spent the majority of her adult life out of the public eye. She relocated to another address and went by her maiden name, Palmer, rather than her married name, Ferguson, to shield her husband and their families who disapproved of

204-468: A day) of spermicide causes more vulvovovaginal epithelial disruption, which theoretically could increase susceptibility to HIV. In a high-risk population using a vaginal gel with nonoxynol-9 more than three applications per day on average, the risk of HIV acquisition was increased compared with placebo. Disadvantages and cautions Local irritation Temporary skin irritation involving the vulva, vagina, or penis caused by either local toxicity or allergy to

238-510: A small statistically significant increase in genital lesions among nonoxynol-9 spermicide users. And in a high-risk population using a nonoxynol-9 vaginal gel more than three applications per day on average, the risk of HIV acquisition was increased. Currently available spermicides containing nonoxynol-9 are ineffective as microbicides, in particular as HIV-preventive measures. Thus, spermicides used alone are not recommended to prevent HIV or other STIs. Furthermore, frequent use (more than 2 times

272-643: Is nonoxynol-9 . Spermicides containing nonoxynol-9 are available in many forms, such as jelly (gel), films, and foams. Used alone, spermicides have a perfect use failure rate of 6% per year when used correctly and consistently, and 16% failure rate per year in typical use. This list of examples was provided by the Mayo Clinic: Nonoxynol-9 is the primary chemical in spermicides to inhibit sperm motility. Active secondary spermicidal ingredients can include octoxynol-9 , benzalkonium chloride and menfegol . These secondary ingredients are not mainstream in

306-445: Is a 97 percent effective rate for pregnancy prevention. Temporary local skin irritation involving the vulva, vagina, or penis is the most common problem associated with spermicide use. Frequent use (two times or more a day) of nonoxynol-9 containing spermicide is inadvisable if STI/HIV exposure is likely, because in this situation there is increased vulvovaginal epithelial disruption and increased risk of HIV acquisition. In 2007,

340-490: Is believed that the low pH of the dung may have had a spermicidal effect. Further formulations are found in the Ebers Papyrus from approximately 1500 BCE. It recommended mixing seed wool, acacia, dates and honey, and placing the mixture in the vagina. It probably had some effectiveness, in part as a physical barrier due to the thick, sticky consistency, and also because of the lactic acid (a known spermicide) formed from

374-464: Is not. Lemon juice solutions have been shown to immobilize sperm in the laboratory, as has Krest Bitter Lemon drink. While the authors of the Krest Bitter Lemon study suggested its use as a postcoital douche, this is unlikely to be effective, as sperm begin leaving the ejaculate (out of the reach of any douche) within 1.5 minutes of deposition. No published studies appear to have been done on

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408-456: The neem plant such as neem oil have also been proposed as spermicides based on laboratory studies. Animal studies of creams and pessaries derived from neem have shown they have contraceptive effects; however, trials in humans to determine its effectiveness in preventing pregnancy have not yet been conducted. Spermicides are believed to increase the contraceptive effectiveness of condoms. However, condoms that are spermicidally lubricated by

442-446: The 1980s and 1990s. A 1988 literature review article noted that in vitro studies of nonoxynol-9 and other spermicides showed inactivation of STI pathogens, including HIV. But a 2002 systemic review and meta-analysis of nine randomized controlled trials of vaginal nonoxynol-9 for HIV and STI prevention involving more than 5,000 women (predominantly sex workers) found no statistically significant reduction in risk of HIV and STIs, but found

476-661: The FDA. The spermicides benzalkonium chloride and sodium cholate are used in some contraceptive sponges . Benzalkonium chloride might also be available in Canada as a suppository. The 2008 Ig Nobel Prize (a parody of the Nobel Prizes ) in Chemistry was awarded to Sheree Umpierre, Joseph Hill, and Deborah Anderson, for discovering that Coca-Cola is an effective spermicide, and to C.Y. Hong, C.C. Shieh, P. Wu, and B.N. Chiang for proving it

510-466: The PIB aligned with work she had previously undertaken in Britain where she came up with the slogan "If you can't change your tactics, at least use prophylactics," targeted at English soldiers going off to war. On September 14, 1936 at the age of 28, Palmer was arrested and charged under section 207(c) of the Criminal Code , which stated that the selling or advertising of contraceptives was illegal. She

544-600: The PIB for six months when she was arrested and had visited approximately 100 families based on doctor referrals. When visiting a home Palmer would explain various contraceptive methods, including demonstrations about how they worked. Those interested in gaining access to the material for their own use would sign a form and later be sent a birth control kit that consisted of spermicides , condoms , and information about purchasing additional items like diaphragms . The trial resulting from her arrest attracted both Canada's most prominent advocates for birth control, representatives of

578-520: The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandated that labels for nonoxynol-9 over-the-counter (OTC) contraceptive products carry a new warning saying they do not protect against STDs and HIV/AIDS. The first written record of spermicide use is found in the Kahun Papyrus , an Egyptian document dating to 1850 BCE. It described a pessary of crocodile dung and fermented dough. It

612-474: The United States, where nonoxynol-9 alone is typical. Preventing sperm motility will inhibit the sperm from travelling towards the egg moving down the fallopian tubes to the uterus. The deep proper insertion of spermicide should effectively block the cervix so that sperm cannot make it past the cervix to the uterus or the fallopian tubes. A study observing the distribution of spermicide containing nonoxynol-9 in

646-526: The acacia. Writings by Soranus , a 2nd-century Greek physician, contained formulations for a number of acidic concoctions claimed to be spermicidal. His instructions were to soak wool in one of the mixtures, then place near the cervix. Laboratory testing of substances to see if they inhibited sperm motility began in the 1800s. Modern spermicides nonoxynol-9 and menfegol were developed from this line of research. However, many other substances of dubious contraceptive value were also promoted. Especially after

680-404: The case was dismissed by the presiding magistrate Lester H. Clayton, who ruled that, as Palmer's actions were "in the public good," no charges could be held against her. In his final ruling, he explained that: The mothers are in poor health, pregnant nine months of the year ... What chance do these children have to be properly fed, clothed and educated? They are a burden on the taxpayer. They crowd

714-424: The collapse of the organization and as many as two years' imprisonment for Palmer. However, the PIB was the brainchild of industrialist A.R. Kaufman , a eugenically minded industrialist, whose family founded Kaufman Rubber Company . His financial support and the hiring of defence attorney F. W. Wegenast would eventually see Palmer's charges dropped. The trial lasted from September 1936 to March 1937. Ultimately,

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748-512: The court acquitted Palmer on the basis that her actions had passed the criminal code's pro bono publico clause: that her actions were done entirely in the interest of the public good with no excess in her actions beyond serving the public good. Drawing international attention, the landmark case gained Palmer the moniker "the Marie Stopes of Canada" a nod to the woman who co-founded the first birth control clinic in Britain. Although contraception

782-484: The effectiveness of lemon juice preparations in preventing pregnancy, though they are advocated by some as 'natural' spermicides. Lactic acid preparations have also been shown to have some spermicidal effect, and commercial lactic acid-based spermicides are available. A contraceptive containing lactic acid, citric acid, and potassium bitartrate (Phexxi) was approved for use in the United States in May 2020. Extractives of

816-403: The formulation is the most common problem associated with spermicide use... Although vaginal epithelial disruption has been associated with frequent use (twice a day or more) of spermicides containing N-9, this is usually asymptomatic. In a low risk population, long-term use of N-9 containing methods was not associated with epithelial disruption. N-9 spermicides are inadvisable if STI/HIV exposure

850-549: The juvenile court. They glut the competitive labour market. Although contraception was not fully legalized in Canada until 1969, Palmer was the only person to be prosecuted for providing information about birth control. Dorothea Palmer Dorothea Palmer (Ferguson) (1908 – 1992), a former employee of the Parents' Information Bureau, was arrested and charged under section 207(c) of the Criminal Code for advertising information on family planning and birth control by means of

884-603: The major churches, and other birth control opponents. Among them were Dr. Brock Chisholm , Mary Elizabeth Hawkins , founder of the Hamilton Birth Control Society , and Reverend Dr. C.E. Silcox of the United Church . Kaufman welcomed the chance to test Canada's laws in court. He spent $ 25,000 mounting a defense for Palmer, a considerable sum at the time, in what would later be known as The Eastview Birth Control Trial which took place from 1936 to 1937. During

918-435: The manufacturer have a shorter shelf life and may cause urinary tract infections in women. The World Health Organization says that spermicidally lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted. However, they recommend using a nonoxynol-9 lubricated condom over no condom at all. Spermicides used alone are only about 91 percent effective. When spermicides are used in conjunction with condoms and other barrier methods there

952-539: The prohibition of contraception in the U.S. by the 1873 Comstock Act , spermicides—the most popular of which was Lysol —were marketed only as "feminine hygiene" products and were not held to any standard of effectiveness. Worse, many manufacturers recommended using the products as a douche after intercourse, too late to affect all the sperm. Medical estimates during the 1930s placed the pregnancy rate of women using many over-the-counter spermicides at seventy percent per year. A misconception about spermicides existed in

986-624: The trial was reenacted as part of the CBC radio series Scales of Justice . The episode script was drafted by Frank Jones, using trial transcripts and related papers held by the University of Waterloo Library , and featured Canadian actress Nicky Guadagni as Palmer. Palmer died in Ottawa on November 5, 1992. Spermicide Spermicide is a contraceptive substance that destroys sperm , inserted vaginally prior to intercourse to prevent pregnancy . As

1020-399: The trial, Palmer was the subject of attacks and abuse by those who opposed her. In one incident, a man pulled her into an alley and attempted to rape her, telling her that he'd "show you what it's like without any birth control." Palmer managed to knee him in the groin and escape. A defense motion for dismissal of charges was filed and ruled by Magistrate Lester Clayton. On March 17, 1937,

1054-512: The vaginal tract showed “After 10 min the gel spread within the vaginal canal providing a contiguous covering of the epithelium of variable thickness.” The sole goal of spermicide is to prevent fertilization. Menfegol is a spermicide manufactured as a foaming tablet. It is available only in Europe. Octoxynol-9 was previously a common spermicide, but was removed from the U.S. market in 2002 after manufacturers failed to perform new studies required by

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1088-573: The work she did with the PIB. The scrutiny was so serious that she relocated with her husband to Toronto for a period of time before returning to Ottawa and resuming their lives in a different part of the city. After her book store closed to make way for an office tower, Palmer worked as a florist. Together she and her husband had one daughter. Palmer was honoured along with A. R. Kaufman , Elizabeth Bagshaw , Lise Fortier, George C. and Barbara Cadbury, by Ortho Pharmaceutical Ltd. in 1973 for their roles in advancing family planning in Canada. In 1986

1122-442: Was arrested for promoting contraception to women in the poor Roman Catholic Ottawa community of Eastview . At the time, 1,000 of the 4,000 people living in the area were on social assistance, many with large families. During questioning at the police station, Palmer expressed her belief that: "A woman should be the master of her own body. She should be the one to say if she wants to become a mother." Palmer had been working with

1156-448: Was not fully legalized in Canada until 1969, no other person was ever prosecuted for distributing information about birth control in the country. Palmer spoke publicly about the position she was placed in by men involved with the birth control movement and the trial expressing that she had done the "dirty work" on their behalf. In a 1978 interview, she explained: "Doctors weren't allowed to prescribe birth control themselves. If they found

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