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49-684: The Central Malayo-Polynesian languages are spoken in the Lesser Sunda and Maluku Islands of the Banda Sea , in an area corresponding closely to the Indonesian provinces of East Nusa Tenggara and Maluku and the nation of East Timor (excepting the Papuan languages of Timor and nearby islands), but with the Bima language extending to the eastern half of Sumbawa Island in the province of West Nusa Tenggara and

98-634: A linkage . Donohue & Grimes (2008) argue that many features claimed to define CMP or CEMP are also found in some of the more conservative Western Malayo-Polynesian languages and even Formosan languages. Edwards & Grimes (2021) also does not consider CEMP to be a coherent branch. Lesser Sunda Islands The Lesser Sunda Islands ( Indonesian : Kepulauan Sunda Kecil , Tetum : Illá Sunda ki'ik sirá , Balinese : Kapuloan Sunda cénik ), now known as Nusa Tenggara Islands ( Indonesian : Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara , or "Southeast Islands"), are an archipelago in Indonesian archipelago . Most of

147-503: A Javanese wedding , especially for the stylised meeting ritual of bride's parents with groom's parents in the ceremonies of Peningsetan and Panggih . Archaically or for certain nobles very strongly attached to tradition, it is used for the Midodareni , Siraman and Sungkeman ceremonies of the Javanese wedding. The island of Lombok has adopted Kawi as its regional language, reflecting

196-477: A demonstrative pronoun means 'that' which is used to differentiate from 'this'. If there is no such contrast, its function is that of a definite article, meaning ‘the’. Ika is put in front of the word to which it belongs and always combined with the definite article. Expression of possessiveness in Old Javanese is done with the help of possessive suffixes, such as suffix -(n)ing and -(n)ika . The suffix - ning

245-431: A possessive relationship between two words, such as in "Wĕtunira sang Suyodhana" (the birth of Suyodhana). The third person pronominal suffixes can be used to nominalise verbs and adjectives such as widagdhanya (his skills) from adjective widagdha and pinintanira (his being asked) from the verb pininta . In Old Javanese, a large number of other words than personal pronouns are used by way of personal pronouns for

294-406: A vowel, such as mānak (having a child) from anak (child), enak (at ease) from inak (ease), and mojar (having speech) from ujar (speech), while there is no change if the word begins with a consonant. Nouns can be qualified by adjectives. Verbs and adjectives, and also adverbs, can be qualified by adverbs. Adverbs are placed before of the words they qualify, except dahat (very, very much)

343-403: Is a cover term for a wide variety of sound changes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. Old Javanese verbs are morphologically complex and are conjugated by taking on a variety of affixes reflecting focus/trigger, aspect, voice, and other categories. -i - akĕn prefix (m)aN- or infix -um- the suffix -ana the suffix -akna or - akĕn infix -in- the suffix -ana

392-422: Is an adjective-class base word, such as urip (alive). The second one is an adjective-class-derived word that uses affixation with the prefix (m)a- from noun base words, such as adoh (far away) from doh (distance), ahayu (beautiful) from hayu (beauty) and mastrī (married) from strī (wife). In case of derivation with the prefix (m)a- , the sandhi law is observed especially when the base word starts with

441-716: Is characteristic of modern Javanese. While evidence of writing in Java dates to the Sanskrit Tarumanegara inscription of 450 AD, the oldest example written entirely in Javanese, called the Sukabumi inscription, is dated 25 March 804 AD. This inscription, located in the district of Pare in the Kediri Regency of East Java, is a copy of the original, dated some 120 years earlier; only this copy has been preserved. Its contents concern

490-400: Is constructed from clitic -(n)i and the definite article (a)ng . The clitic -(n)i have no meaning and cannot self-standing, although it is required in the construction. It is generally written as -ning, while it is written as -ing after base word ending in n . The suffix -(n)ika is constructed from clitic -(n)i and definite article ika and is written as -nika generally, while it

539-795: Is disputed by several linguists, who hold the view that it is also possible that the occurrence of these retroflex consonants was an independent development within the Austronesian language family. A related question is the form in which Sanskrit words were loaned in Old Javanese. The borrowed Sanskrit words in Old Javanese are almost without exceptions nouns and adjectives in their undeclined form (Sanskrit lingga ). Old Javanese texts contain many more characters with similar phonology values to represent distinct vowels and consonants in Sanskrit such as unadapted loanwords. Wherever these diacritics occur in Old Javanese texts, they are neglected in pronunciation: bhaṭāra

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588-457: Is divided into Central Malayo-Polynesian (CMP) and Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (EMP). However, CMP is generally understood to be a cover term for the non-EMP languages within CEMP, which form a linkage at best rather than a valid clade. The Central Malayo-Polynesian languages may form a linkage . They are for the most part poorly attested, but they do not appear to constitute a coherent group. Many of

637-627: Is limited, leading to the evolution of a high rate of localized species, most famously the Komodo dragon . As described by Alfred Wallace in The Malay Archipelago , the Wallace Line passes between Bali and Lombok, along the deep waters of the Lombok Strait which formed a water barrier even when lower sea levels linked the now-separated islands and landmasses on either side. The islands east of

686-493: Is not an indication of usage, but it is an indication that the Ancient Javanese knew and employed these Sanskrit words in their literary works. In any given Old Javanese literary work, approximately 25% of the vocabulary is derived from Sanskrit. Sanskrit has also influenced both the phonology and the vocabulary of Old Javanese. Old Javanese also contains retroflex consonants , which might have been derived from Sanskrit. That

735-490: Is placed after the word. The word tan is used to express 'not' and have several forms as tatan , tātan , ndatan , and ndātan . There are several prepositions in Old Javanese, in which the noun preceded by the preposition is definite, such as: However, there are particularities in the expression of 'inside' or 'from inside' in Old Javanese. Old Javanese use a combination of either jĕro or dalĕm (inner part, depth) followed by clitic -ni , such as dalĕmnikang to express

784-523: Is related to the Pallava script and Kadamba script in South India. Nowadays, Old Javanese can be written with Balinese script and Javanese script in modern literatures which are descendants of Kawi script. Kawi is not truly extinct as a spoken language. It is commonly used in some Javanese traditional events such as wayang golek , wayang wong and wayang kulit , in addition to high activities such as

833-420: Is richly endowed with natural resources, the resources of the small islands of Nusa Tenggara are limited and specialised; furthermore human resources in particular are limited. General observations about small islands that can be applied to Nusa Tenggara include: The Lesser Sundas comprise many islands stretching east of Java , most of which are part of Indonesia and from 1945 were administered (apart from

882-412: Is still controversial as it is solely based on lexical evidence, with no shared phonological innovations. In contrast, the two individual branches, South Halmahera–West New Guinea and Oceanic , each are well-defined by phonological and lexical innovations , and universally accepted as valid subgroups. CEMP is rejected as a valid clade by Donohue & Grimes (2008), who do not consider CEMP to even be

931-550: Is taken the National motto of Indonesia: " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " . Although often glibly translated as "Unity in Diversity", it is more correctly rendered as "[although] scattered, remaining [as] one"— referring to the scattered islands of the archipelago nation, not as an expression of multicultural solidarity as may be perceived in modern times. A more modern work is the poem "Susila Budhi Dharma" , by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo ,

980-427: Is the oldest attested phase of the Javanese language . It was spoken in the eastern part of what is now Central Java and the whole of East Java , Indonesia . As a literary language, Kawi was used across Java and on the islands of Madura , Bali , and Lombok . It had a sizable vocabulary of Sanskrit loanwords but had not yet developed the formal krama language register, to be used with one's social superiors that

1029-412: Is the pronunciation of /a/ in open syllables: now å, then /a/, such as in wana (forest). Although, Old Javanese made a distinction between those "short vowels" and "long vowels" in writing such as ā, ö, e, ī, ū, and o, however, these "long vowels" have no distinction in phonology with those "short vowels". This distinction is generally happened with unadapted loanwords from Sanskrit which differentiates

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1078-558: Is the same as baṭara (loss of vowel length and aspiration is also shared by Elu Prakrit , the ancestor of Sinhala ). Nor do they influence the order of the words in the dictionary: the variants s, ṣ, and ś, for example, are all treated like s. Medieval poems written in Old Javanese using the Kawi script continued to be circulated within the courts of Kartasura , Surakarta , and Yogyakarta . The poems were called layang kawi (Kawi books) or kakawin and were held in high regard. Starting in

1127-405: Is the same as in main clauses: the subject follows the predicate. However, different from main clauses, in sub-clauses headed by an no separating particle is used. In a basic clause, predicate and subject are separated from each other by a particle ( ta ) marking the border between both parts of the sentence. For example, " lunghā ta sira " means "he leaves" as leave ( lunghā ), particle ( ta ), and

1176-437: Is written as -ika after base word ending in n . The possessiveness can be expressed with pronominal suffixes, in which no definite article is added in a such case. Honorific articles can also express possessiveness and definiteness, such as ujar sang guru (the word of the teacher), by placing the honorific article after the possessed noun and followed by the possessor. Old Javanese have two types of adjectives. The first one

1225-646: The Majapahit empire in 1292. The Javanese language which was spoken and written in the Majapahit era already underwent some changes and is therefore already closer to the Modern Javanese language. The most important shaping force on Old Javanese was its Austronesian heritage in vocabulary, sentence structure, and grammar that it shared with its sister languages in Southeast Asia. The Indian linguistic influence in

1274-575: The Pliocene , about 15 million years ago, as a result of the collision between the Australian and the Asian plates . The islands of the southern archipelago, including Sumba , Timor and Babar , are non-volcanic and appear to belong to the Australian plate . The geology and ecology of the northern archipelago share similar history, characteristics, and processes with the southern Maluku Islands , which continue

1323-518: The Sula languages of the Sula Islands in the southwest corner of the province of North Maluku . The principal islands in this region are Sumbawa , Sumba , Flores , Timor , Buru , and Seram . The numerically most important languages are Nggahi Mbojo ( Bimanese ), Manggarai of western Flores, Uab Meto of West Timor , and Tetum , the national language of East Timor . In the original proposal, CEMP

1372-723: The tropical moist forests that prevail in most of Indonesia. The Lesser Sunda Islands are divided among six ecoregions: More than half of the original vegetation of the islands has been cleared for planting of rice and other crops, for settlement and by consequent forest fires. Only Sumbawa now contains a large area of intact natural forest, while Komodo, Rincah and Padar are now protected as Komodo National Park . While many ecological problems affect both small islands and large landmasses, small islands suffer their particular problems and are highly exposed to external forces. Development pressures on small islands are increasing, although their effects are not always anticipated. Although Indonesia

1421-453: The 18th century, literature inspired by Old Javanese was written using the modern Javanese language and verse. Old Javanese has six vowels. Those vowels are "a", "ĕ" /ə/, "e" /e/, i, u, and o in Latin transliteration. Little can be said about the pronunciation of Old Javanese. It is believed that it has not been much different from the pronunciation of modern Javanese. However, the major difference

1470-890: The Lesser Sunda Islands are located within the Wallacea region, except for the Bali province which is west of the Wallace Line and is within the Sunda Shelf . Together with the Greater Sunda Islands to the west, they make up the Sunda Islands . The islands are part of a volcanic arc , the Sunda Arc , formed by subduction along the Sunda Trench in the Java Sea . In 1930 the population

1519-644: The Lombok Strait are part of Wallacea , and are thus characterised by a blend of wildlife of Asian and Australasian origin in this region. Asian species predominate in the Lesser Sundas: Weber's Line , which marks the boundary between the parts of Wallacea with mainly Asian and Australasian species respectively, runs to the east of the group. These islands have the driest climate in Indonesia, and tropical dry broadleaf forests are predominant, in contrast to

Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages - Misplaced Pages Continue

1568-551: The Old Javanese language was almost exclusively Sanskrit influence. There is no evidence of Indian linguistic elements in Old Javanese other than Sanskrit. This is different from, for example, the influence of Indian linguistics in the (Old) Malay language. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting impact on the vocabulary of the Javanese language. The Old Javanese–English Dictionary , written by Professor P.J. Zoetmulder in 1982, contains approximately 25,500 entries, no fewer than 12,500 of which are borrowed from Sanskrit. This large number

1617-413: The construction of a dam for an irrigation canal near the river Śrī Hariñjing (now shortened to Srinjing ). This inscription is the last of its kind to be written using Pallava script ; all consequent examples of Old Javanese are written using Kawi script . Old Javanese was not static, and its usage covered approximately 500 years – from the Sukabumi (Kediri, East Java) inscription until the founding of

1666-528: The eastern half of Timor island and Atauro island which constitute the nation of Timor Leste , all the other islands are part of Indonesia . The Lesser Sunda Islands consist of two geologically distinct archipelagos. The northern archipelago, which includes Bali , Lombok , Sumbawa , Flores and Wetar , is volcanic in origin. A number of these volcanoes , like Mount Rinjani on Lombok, are still active while others, such as Ilikedeka on Flores, are extinct. The northern archipelago began to be formed during

1715-524: The easternmost islands which have been always administered as part of Maluku Province) as the Lesser Sunda Islands ( Sunda Kecil ) Province of Indonesia, later called Nusa Tenggara. In 1958 this was split into three new provinces, as the provinces of Bali , West Nusa Tenggara and East Nusa Tenggara . The eastern half of Timor Island is the separate nation of East Timor (officially Timor Leste}. Religion in Lesser Sunda Islands (December 2023) Old Javanese language Old Javanese or Kawi

1764-512: The first and second person. They consist of fixed expressions in which the original meaning of the words involved does not play a role and a virtually boundless list of words referring to functions and family relations. Proper names do not play a role in this respect. For example, first person pronouns can be manifested as nghulun ( hulun , slave) and ngwang ( wwang , man). Old Javanese has four sets of demonstrative pronouns. The members of each set represent different degrees of distance seen from

1813-420: The first, second, and third person. The pronoun is not differentiated by singular and plural and social status in general. Sira may be used as an honorific particle, similar to sang . The personal pronoun has corresponding pronominal suffixes which serve to express either the possessive relationship or an agent . The suffixes exhibit sandhi features, such as The third person pronominal suffixes can express

1862-509: The idea of 'inside' or 'from inside'. The preposition of the inside is expressed by placing either (r)i or sake before either jĕro or dalĕm (inner part, depth) without placement of both clitic -ni and definite articles. It is important to remember that (r)i can be used as an object marker of transitive verb and proper noun maker. There are several conjunctions in Old Javanese; the most common ones are an , yan , apan , and yarapwan . The order of elements in sub-clauses headed by an

1911-513: The most geologically complex and active regions in the world. The province of Bali is the only part of Nusa Tenggara located on the Sunda Shelf and that is not within the Wallacea region and that is west of the Wallace Line . There are a number of volcanoes located on the Lesser Sunda Islands. The Lesser Sunda Islands differ from the large islands of Java or Sumatra in consisting of many small islands, sometimes divided by deep oceanic trenches . Movement of flora and fauna between islands

1960-470: The noun and cannot stand by themselves. The definite article is (a)ng and it is written combined with particles. Examples of honorific articles that express a certain amount of respect are si , pun , sang , sang hyang , ḍang hyang , śrī, and ra . Besides the definite article and the articles of respect, ika can be used to express definiteness. The word ika has two functions, those are definite article and demonstrative pronoun. The word ika as

2009-523: The predicate is a verb. The predicate can also be a nominal predicate, where the predicate can be an adjective and nouns, including proper names, and pronouns. Old Javanese verbs are not conjugated and do not formally distinguish between present and past time. Old Javanese was written with Kawi or Old Javanese script in 8th–16th century. The Kawi script is a Brahmic script found primarily in Java and used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia . The Kawi script

Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages - Misplaced Pages Continue

2058-467: The proposed defining features of CMP are not found in the geographic extremes of the area. Therefore some linguists consider it a linkage ; a conservative classification might consider CMP to be a convenient term for those Central–Eastern languages which are not Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (Grimes 1991). The Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages extend from the coasts of Halmahera across the Pacific. This subgroup

2107-420: The same island arc to the east. There is a long history of geological study of these regions since Indonesian colonial times ; however, the geological formation and progression is not fully understood, and theories of the geological evolution of the islands changed extensively during the last decades of the 20th century. Lying at the collision of two tectonic plates , the Lesser Sunda Islands comprise some of

2156-518: The short and long vowels. There are twenty consonants in Old Javanese which are written as b, c, d, ḍ, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ñ, ŋ, p, r, s, t, ṭ, w, and y in Latin transliteration. The consonant ñ sometimes is written as the digraph ny and IPA ɲ, while the consonant ŋ sometimes is written as the digraph ng. The presence of such aspirated consonants, retroflex nasal, palatal sibilant, and retroflex sibilant are used for unadapted loanwords from Indo-Aryan languages (specifically Sanskrit ). Sandhi

2205-477: The speaker, while the four sets at least in theory express different shades of stress. Old Javanese does not have an indefinite article. A noun without an article is indefinite. Old Javanese has three sorts of articles to express definiteness: a definite article, several honorific articles, and ika (there are still other ways of expressing definiteness in Old Javanese, for example, the possessive suffix). Both definite articles and honorific articles are placed before

2254-462: The suffix -akna or -akĕn There are various particles in Old Javanese. Particle ta is the most common one. The other particles that occur regularly are pwa , ya, and sira . These ya and sira as particles must be differentiated from the personal pronouns ya and sira , ‘he, she’. Sometimes they are combined such as ta pwa and ta ya . It is not compulsory to use them; they are often left out. Old Javanese have several personal pronouns for

2303-423: The third person pronoun ( sira ). The predicate comes first in the sentence, the subject follows the predicate, which is the normal order. However, the reversed order also occurs which it signals of some particularity such as stress intended by the writer. These sentences lack an indication of time. Subject in Old Javanese can be personal pronoun, noun, and proper names. The predicate can be a verbal predicate where

2352-543: The very strong influence of East Java . Today, it is taught in primary school education as part of the compulsory secondary language unit of National curriculum. Traditionally, Kawi is written on lontar prepared palm leaves. Kawi remains in occasional use as an archaic prose and literary language, in a similar fashion to Shakespeare -era English . There are many important literary works written in Kawi, most notably Empu Tantular 's epic poem, "Kakawin Sutasoma", from which

2401-457: Was 3,460,059; today slightly over 15.5 million people live on the islands. Etymologically, Nusa Tenggara means "Southeast Islands" from the words of nusa which means 'island' from Old Javanese language and tenggara means 'southeast'. The main Lesser Sunda Islands are, from west to east: Bali , Lombok , Sumbawa , Flores , Sumba , Savu , Rote , Timor , Atauro , Alor archipelago , Barat Daya Islands , and Tanimbar Islands . Apart from

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