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162-786: After the creation of Manchukuo and subsequent military action by the Imperial Japanese Army , which brought Northeastern China east of the Great Wall under Japanese control, the Empire of Japan and the Republic of China signed the Tanggu Truce , which established a demilitarised zone south of the Great Wall, extending from Tianjin to Beiping . Under the terms of the truce and the subsequent He-Umezu Agreement of 1935, this demilitarized zone

324-442: A war lasting several years to pacify the country. Manchukuo was proclaimed a monarchy on 1 March 1934, with Puyi assuming the throne with the era name of Kangde. He was nominally assisted in his executive duties by a Privy Council and a General Affairs State Council . This State Council was the center of political power, and consisted of several cabinet ministers, each assisted by a Japanese vice-minister. The commander-in-chief of

486-634: A "capitalist" economy. The American historian Joshua Fogel wrote about the young servants of Manchukuo: "Tremendous debates transpired on such things as the nature of the Chinese economy, and the lingua franca of these debates was always Marxism". To resolve this debate, various research teams of five or six young civil servants, guarded by detachments from the Kwantung Army of about 20 or 30 men, went out to do field research in Manchukuo, gathering material about

648-525: A Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Xinjing, they made up 25% of the population. Accordingly, to the census of 1936, of the Japanese population of Manchukuo, 22% were civil servants and their families; 18% were working for the South Manchurian Railroad company; 25% had come to Manchukuo to establish a business, and 21% had come to work in industry. The Japanese working in

810-485: A Soviet labor camp. The Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million people in Manchuria as "Manchus", including Han Chinese, despite the fact that most of them were not ethnic Manchu, and the Japanese written, "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's argument to claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China. In 1942 the Japanese wrote "Ten Year History of

972-749: A base of operations for the People's Liberation Army against the National Revolutionary Army in the Chinese Civil War . The Chinese Communists used Manchuria as a staging ground until the final Nationalist retreat to Taiwan in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantōgun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces. Most of the 1.5 million Japanese who had been left in Manchukuo at

1134-460: A batch of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo; joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. Of the Japanese settlers in Manchukuo, almost half came from the rural areas of Kyushu. When Japan lost sea and air control of the Yellow Sea in 1943–44, this migration stopped. Xinhai Revolution [REDACTED]   Qing dynasty The 1911 Revolution , also known as

1296-507: A book in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty, and tyranny, and creating new revolutionary Han figures. Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings they would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After

1458-464: A branch line from Harbin to Port Arthur , now known as Dalian . Under the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Kwantung Army had the right to occupy southern Manchuria while the region fell into the Japanese economic sphere of influence. The Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railroad company had a market capitalization of 200 million yen, making it Asia's largest corporation, which went beyond just running

1620-646: A combined Soviet–Mongolian force defeated a Kwantung Army with limited Manchukuoan support. On 8 August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference , and invaded Manchukuo from Outer Manchuria and Outer Mongolia. During the Soviet offensive, the Manchukuo Imperial Army , on paper a 200,000-man force, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to

1782-743: A conflict between the citizens and local police against the New Army. After revolutionary leader Ni Yingdian was killed by Qing forces, the remaining revolutionaries were quickly defeated, causing the uprising to fail. On 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in Guangzhou, known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising ( 辛亥廣州起義 ) or Yellow Flower Mound Revolt ( 黃花岡之役 ). It ended in disaster, as 86 bodies were found (only 72 could be identified). The 72 revolutionaries were remembered as martyrs. Revolutionary Lin Juemin

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1944-653: A matter of culture as of race. Around the same time the Soviet Union was advocating the Siberian Jewish Autonomous Oblast across the Manchukuo-Soviet border, some Japanese officials investigated a plan (known as the Fugu Plan ) to attract Jewish refugees to Manchukuo as part of their colonisation effort, which was never adopted as official policy. The Jewish community in Manchukuo was not subjected to

2106-679: A new crackdown on the left. In November 1941, the Social Research Unit of the South Manchurian Railroad Company, which was well known as a hotbed of Marxism since the early 1930s, was raided by the Kenpeitai , who arrested 50 of those working in the Social Research Unit. At least 44 of those working in the Social Research Unit were convicted of violating the Peace Preservation Law, which made thinking about "altering

2268-500: A process of brainwashing by the police of left-wing activists to make them accept that the Emperor was a god after all, whom they were best to serve. Tenko was a very successful process that turned young Japanese who once had been ardent liberals or leftists who rejected the idea that the Emperor was a god into fanatical rightists, who made up for their previous doubts about the divinity of the Emperor with militant enthusiasm. One tenkosha

2430-463: A revolution in family, gender and social values, would remove the need for government and coercion. Zhang Ji and Wang Jingwei were among the anarchists who defended assassination and terrorism as means to awaken the people to revolution, but others insisted that education was the only justifiable strategy. Important anarchists included Cai Yuanpei . Zhang Renjie gave Sun major financial help. Many of these anarchists would later assume high positions in

2592-457: A state-guided economy where corporations made their investments on government orders later served as the model for Japan's post-1945 development, albeit not with same level of brutal exploitation as in Manchukuo. By the 1930s, Manchukuo's industrial system was among the most advanced making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production exceeded Japan's in the late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernized during

2754-514: A very strongly state-directed economy to achieve his goal of vastly increased industrial production while at the same time displaying utter indifference to the exploited Chinese workers toiling in Manchukuo's factories; the American historian Mark Driscoll described Kishi's system as a "necropolitical" system where the Chinese workers were literally treated as dehumanized cogs within a vast industrial machine. The system that Kishi pioneered in Manchuria of

2916-458: Is controversial". Professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi remarked that she would "use the term in quotation marks". Herbert Giles wrote that the name was unknown to the Manchu people themselves as a geographical designation. In 2012, Professor Chad D. Garcia noted that usage of the term was out of favor in "current scholarly practice", instead preferring "the northeast [of China]". The name of the country

3078-565: Is the label corresponding to 1911 according to the sexagenary cycle . The governments of Taiwan and China both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including nationalism , republicanism , modernization of China and national unity . 10 October is the National Day of the Republic of China on Taiwan, and the Anniversary of

3240-520: The South China Morning Post . Sun Yat-sen 's Revive China Society was established in Honolulu in 1894, with the main purpose of raising funds for revolutions. The two organizations merged in 1894. The Huaxinghui (China Revival Society) was founded in 1904 by notables like Huang Xing , Zhang Shizhao , Chen Tianhua , Sun Yat-sen, and Song Jiaoren , along with 100 others. Their motto

3402-625: The Amur River outright, now known collectively as Outer Manchuria As the Qing continued to weaken, Russia made further efforts to take control of the rest of Manchuria. By the 1890s, the region was under strong Russian influence, symbolized by the Russian-built Chinese Eastern Railway that ran from Harbin to Vladivostok . The Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society initially supported Sun Yat-sen 's activities against

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3564-498: The Axis powers , with its existence widely seen as illegitimate. The region now known as Manchuria had historically been the homeland of the Manchu people , though by the 20th century they had long since become a minority in the region, with Han Chinese constituting by far the largest ethnic group. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty , which had governed China since 17th century, was overthrown with

3726-755: The Beiyang Army ) as prime minister, and he began negotiations with the revolutionaries. In Nanjing, revolutionary forces created a provisional coalition government . On 1 January 1912, the National Assembly declared the establishment of the Republic of China, with Sun Yat-sen , leader of the Tongmenghui , as President of the Republic of China . A brief civil war between the North and the South ended in compromise. Sun would resign in favor of Yuan, who would become President of

3888-688: The Chinese Eastern Railway , a Russian concession which was still owned by the Soviet Union inside Manchukuo. The Soviet Union sold the Chinese Eastern Railway to Japanese Manchukuo in 1935, giving Japan and Manchukuo full control over the railroads of Manchuria. The Japanese built an efficient railway system that still functions well today. Known as the South Manchuria Railway or Mantetsu , this large corporation came to own large stakes in many industrial projects throughout

4050-577: The Emperor Protection Society in an attempt to restore the emperor, but others, such as Sun Yat-sen organized revolutionary groups to overthrow the dynasty rather than reform it. They could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions, or exile overseas, but created a following among Chinese in North America and Southeast Asia, and within China, even in

4212-541: The Imperial House of Japan . He disclosed that Manchukuo was not intended "to benefit China or to help the Chinese people form a unified state. Instead, it should be viewed as a kind of makeshift trick prompted by a desire to cover up Japan’s policy of aggression.” The Legislative Council was largely a ceremonial body, existing to rubber-stamp decisions issued by the State Council. The only authorized political party

4374-536: The Kuomintang (KMT). Many revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing/anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the ethnic minority Manchu and the ethnic majority Han Chinese from the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the final years of the Ming dynasty, the last dynasty of Han Chinese. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal

4536-586: The Kwantung Army also served as the official Japanese ambassador to the state. He functioned in a manner similar to resident officers in European colonial empires, with the added ability to veto decisions by the emperor. The Kwantung Army leadership placed Japanese vice ministers in his cabinet, while all Chinese advisors gradually resigned or were dismissed. Zheng Xiaoxu served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when Zhang Jinghui succeeded him. Puyi

4698-405: The Kwantung Army . By the end of World War II, the South Manchuria Railway owned 70 companies and employed about 340,000 people in Manchukuo and occupied China. In 1908, the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000. In early 1934,

4860-604: The Manchuria March whose verses proclaimed that the seizing of Manchuria in 1931–32 was a continuation of what Japan had fought for against Russia in 1904–05, and the ghosts of the Japanese soldiers killed in the Russo-Japanese war could now rest at ease as their sacrifices had not been in vain. In 1935, Manchukuo purchased the Chinese Eastern Railway from the Soviet Union. During the Second Sino-Japanese War ,

5022-753: The Mukden Incident . On 16 February 1932, the Imperial Army hosted the "Founding Conference" or "Big Four Conference" with Liaoning governor Zang Shiyi , Heilongjiang governor Zhang Jinghui , commander of the Kirin Provincial Army Xi Qia , and general Ma Zhanshan , in order to establish the Northeast Administrative Committee. On the committee's second meeting, the aforementioned four plus Tang Yulin , Ling Sheng, and Qimote Semupilei were appointed as chairmen. On 18 February,

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5184-599: The New Army under Yuan Shikai and many concluded that Chinese society also needed to be modernized if technological and commercial advancements were to succeed. In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor turned to reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao who offered a program inspired in large part by the reforms in Japan . They proposed basic reform in education, military, and economy in the so-called Hundred Days' Reform . The reform

5346-522: The Qinzhou Uprising occurred (欽州防城起義), to protest against heavy taxation from the government. Sun Yat-sen sent Wang Heshun ( 王和順 ) there to assist the revolutionary army and captured the county in September. After that, they attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou but were unsuccessful. They eventually retreated to the area of Shiwandashan, while Wang Heshun returned to Vietnam . On 1 December 1907,

5508-639: The Self-Strengthening Movement . In the wars against the Taiping (1851–1864), Nian (1851–1868), Yunnan (1856–1873) and Dungan (1862–1877), the court came to rely on armies raised by local officials. After a generation of relative success in importing Western naval and weapons technology, defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 was all the more humiliating and convinced many of the need for institutional change. The court established

5670-571: The Self-Strengthening movement . Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan. A new progressive class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, Song Jiaoren , Hu Hanmin , Liao Zhongkai , Zhu Zhixin and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like Zou Rong , known for writing Revolutionary Army ,

5832-590: The Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945; its government was formally dissolved following the Japanese surrender in September. The territory was transferred to Chinese administration the following year. The name of the state is written with the same Han characters sharing the same meaning in both Japanese and Chinese, allowing for the use of the simplified and variant characters that exist in both languages. In Chinese,

5994-541: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom era. Ma Fuyi ( 馬福益 ) and Huaxinghui was involved in an uprising in the three areas of Pingxiang , Liuyang and Liling , called "Ping-liu-li Uprising", ( 萍瀏醴起義 ) in 1905. The uprising recruited miners as early as 1903 to rise against the Qing ruling class. After the uprising failed, Ma Fuyi was executed. Wu Yue ( 吳樾) of the Guangfuhui carried out an assassination attempt at

6156-669: The Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces position was established to govern them. As the power of the court in Beijing weakened, many of the empire's outlying areas either broke free (such as Kashgar ) or fell under the control of the Western imperialist powers. The Russian Empire had set its sights on Qing's northern territories, and through unequal treaties signed in 1858 and 1860 ultimately annexed huge tracts of territory adjoining

6318-700: The Willow Palisade , with internal movement and migration regulated by ethnicity. These policies continued until after the end of the Second Opium War in the late 19th century, when the government started to encourage massive waves of Han migration to the northeast, collectively known as the Chuang Guandong , in order to prevent the Russian Empire from seizing more of the area. In 1907, the three provinces constituting Manchuria were officially constituted, and

6480-566: The Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution , ended China's last imperial dynasty , the Qing dynasty , and led to the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). The revolution was the culmination of a decade of agitation, revolts, and uprisings. Its success marked the collapse of the Chinese monarchy , the end of over two millennia of imperial rule in China and the 200-year reign of the Qing, and

6642-471: The kokutai " a crime in 1942–43 and were given long prison sentences, of whom four died due to the harsh conditions of prisons in Manchukuo. As the men working in the Social Research Unit had played important roles in Manchukuo's economic policy and were university graduates from good families, the Japanese historian Hotta Eri wrote that the Kenpeitai was ordered to "handle them with care", meaning no torture of

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6804-455: The kokutai " was a crime, which led many leftist Japanese university graduates to go work in Manchukuo, where they believed they could achieve the sort of social revolution that was impossible in Japan. By 1933, the Japanese state had essentially destroyed both the Japanese Socialist Party and the Japanese Communist Party via mass arrests and Tenkō with both parties reduced down to mere rumps, which caused many Japanese student leftists to draw

6966-404: The new national government , if Yuan could secure the abdication of the Qing emperor. The edict of abdication of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor , was promulgated on 12 February 1912. Yuan was sworn in as president on 10 March 1912. In December 1915, Yuan restored the monarchy and proclaimed himself as the Hongxian Emperor, but the move was met with strong opposition from the population and

7128-434: The 1911 Revolution in the PRC. Nationalism (Mínzú) Democracy (Mínquán) Socialism (Mínshēng) After suffering its first defeat by the West in the First Opium War in 1842, a conservative court culture constrained efforts to reform and did not want to cede authority to local officials. Following defeat in the Second Opium War in 1860, the Qing began efforts to modernize by adopting Western technologies through

7290-430: The 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like Sanhehui were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming." The gentry's strength in local politics became apparent. From December 1908,

7452-440: The 1911 Revolution, including students and intellectuals returning from abroad, as well as participants of revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers, and others. Assistance from overseas Chinese was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who

7614-544: The 1920s, much of the younger intelligentsia in Japan had rejected their parents' values and had become active in various left-wing movements. Starting with the Peace Preservation Law of 1925 , which made the very act of thinking about 'altering the kokutai ' a crime, the government had embarked on a sustained campaign to stomp out all left-wing thought in Japan. However, many of the bright young university graduates active in left-wing movements in Japan were needed to serve as civil servants in Manchukuo, which Young noted led

7776-418: The 1920s, the Japanese Army under the influence of the Wehrstaat (Defense State) theories popular with the Reichswehr had started to advocate their own version of the Wehrstaat , the totalitarian "national defense state" which would mobilize an entire society for war in peacetime. An additional influence on the Japanese "total war" school who tended to be very anti-capitalist was the First Five Year Plan in

7938-408: The Army, leading to his abdication in March 1916 and the reinstatement of the Republic. Yuan's failure to consolidate a legitimate central government before his death in June 1916 led to decades of political division and warlordism , including an attempt at imperial restoration of the Qing dynasty . The name "Xinhai Revolution" is derived from the traditional Chinese calendar , where "Xinhai" ( 辛亥 )

8100-480: The Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway station ( 正陽門車站 ) in an attack on five Qing officials on 24 September 1905. The Huanggang Uprising ( 黃岡起義 ) was launched on 22 May 1907, in Chaozhou . The revolutionary party, along with Xu Xueqiu ( 許雪秋 ), Chen Yongpo ( 陳湧波 ) and Yu Tongshi ( 余通實 ), launched the uprising and captured Huanggang city. After the uprising began, the Qing government quickly and forcefully suppressed it. Around 200 revolutionaries were killed. In

8262-401: The Chinese, Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, and Japanese. At various times, the Japanese suggested that the Russians might be a "sixth race" of Manchukuo, but this was never officially declared. In 1936, the Manchukuo Almanac reported that were 33,592 Russians living in the city of Harbin—the "Moscow of the Orient"—and of whom only 5,580 had been granted Manchukuo citizenship. Japanese imperialism

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8424-623: The Construction of Manchukuo" which attempted to emphasize the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchu's claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing period and only returned later. Source: Beal, Edwin G (1945). "The 1940 Census of Manchuria". The Far Eastern Quarterly . 4 (3): 243–262. doi : 10.2307/2049515 . JSTOR   2049515 . S2CID   166016710 . In 1931–1932, there were 100,000 Japanese farmers; other sources mention 590,760 Japanese inhabitants. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of

8586-424: The Council issued a statement announcing that "the Northeast provinces are completely independent". On 18 February 1932 Manchukuo was proclaimed by the Northeast Supreme Administrative Council nominally in control of the region. On February 25, the Council decided that the name of the new country name (Manchukuo), the national flag, era name, and more. Manchukuo was formally established on 1 March in Xinjing , and

8748-449: The Empress Dowager, prompted another foreign invasion of Beijing in 1900. After the Allies imposed a punitive settlement , the Qing court carried out basic fiscal and administrative reforms , including local and provincial elections. These moves did not secure trust or wide support among political activists. Many, like Zou Rong , felt strong anti-Manchu prejudice and blamed them for China's troubles. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao formed

8910-484: The Far Eastern Jewish Council was created, chaired by the Harbin Jewish community leader Dr. Abraham Kaufman . Between 1937 and 1939 the city of Harbin in Manchukuo was the location of the Conference of Jewish Communities in the Far East. Following the Russian Red Army's invasion of Manchuria in 1945, Dr. Kaufman and several other Jewish community leaders were arrested by the Soviets and charged with anti-Soviet activities, resulting in Kaufman's imprisonment for ten years in

9072-422: The Japanese employees were mostly white-collar, meaning most of the Japanese living in Manchuria were middle-class people who saw themselves as an elite. In Japan, Manchuria was widely seen as analogous to the Wild West: a dangerous frontier region full of bandits, revolutionaries, and warlords, but also a land of boundless wealth and promise, where it was possible for ordinary people to become very well-off. During

9234-422: The Japanese liked to victimize them. Until World War II, the Japanese tended to leave alone those travelling to Manchukuo with a passport as they did not like to deal with protests from embassies in Tokyo about the mistreatment of their citizens. The Kwantung Army operated a secret biological-chemical warfare unit based in Pinfang, Unit 731, that performed gruesome experiments on people involving much visceration of

9396-443: The Japanese military underwent heavy losses, ultimately incurring about 500,000 casualties. The war caused many Japanese people to develop a more possessive attitude towards Manchuria, with Japan having sacrificed so much while fighting in Manchurian territory. From 1905 on, Japanese publications often described Manchuria as a "sacred" and "holy" land where many Japanese had died as martyrs. The war had almost bankrupted Japan, forcing

9558-599: The Japanese state to embark upon a contradictory policy of recruiting the same people active in the movements that it was seeking to crush." To rule Manchukuo, which right from the start had a very statist economy, the Japanese state needed university graduates who were fluent in Mandarin Chinese, and the 1920s–30s, many of the university graduates in Japan who knew Mandarin were "progressives" involved in left-wing causes. The fact that young Japanese civil servants in Manchukuo with their degrees in economics, sociology, etc., who had once been active in left-wing movements helps explain

9720-439: The Japanese state was creating an entire state anew, which meant that Manchukuo had a desperate need for university graduates to work in its newly founded civil service. In addition, the Pan-Asian rhetoric of Manchukuo and the prospect of Japan helping ordinary people in Manchuria greatly appealed to the idealistic youth of Japan. Young wrote about the young Japanese people who went to work in Manchukuo: "The men, and in some cases,

9882-401: The Japanese to accept the compromise Treaty of Portsmouth mediated by President Theodore Roosevelt of the United States, under which Japan made gains, but nowhere to the extent that the Japanese public had been expecting. The Treaty of Portsmouth set off an anti-American riot in Tokyo between 5–7 September 1905 as the general viewpoint in Japan was that the Japanese had won the war but lost

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10044-432: The Japanese to withdraw from the area, and Outer Manchuria would be under Soviet control by 1925. During the Warlord Era , Marshal Zhang Zuolin established himself in Manchuria with Japanese backing. Later, the Japanese Kwantung Army found him too independent, so he was assassinated in 1928. In assassinating Marshal Zhang, the 'Old Marshal', the Kwantung Army generals expected Manchuria to descend into anarchy, providing

10206-408: The Japanese used Manchukuo as a base to conduct their invasion of the rest of China. The Manchu general Tong Linge was killed in action by the Japanese in the Battle of Beiping–Tianjin , which marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. In the summer of 1939, a border dispute between Manchukuo and the Mongolian People's Republic resulted in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol . During this battle,

10368-481: The Japanese, was used to kidnap various "unreliable" Russians living in Manchukuo for Unit 731 to experiment upon. The children of the Russian exiles often married Han Chinese, and the resulting children were always known in Manchukuo as "mixed water" people, and were shunned by both the Russian and Chinese communities. Chinese accounts, both at the time and later, tended to portray the Russians living in Manchuria as all prostitutes and thieves, and almost always ignored

10530-431: The Kwantung Army and the Manchukuo state. Ohgami believed that his studies helped ordinary people, citing one study he did about water use in rural Manchukuo, where he noted a correlation between villages that were deprived of water and "banditry" (the codeword for anti-Japanese guerrillas), believing that the policy of improving water supply in villages was due to his study. The outbreak of the war with China in 1937 caused

10692-435: The Kwantung Army had assassinated his father, the "Young Marshal"—who unlike his father was a Chinese nationalist—had strong reasons to dislike Japan's privileged position in Manchuria. Marshal Zhang knew his forces were too weak to expel the Kwantung Army, but his relations with the Japanese were unfriendly right from the start. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Japanese militarists moved forward to separate

10854-419: The Manchukuo era. However, much of the country's economy was often subordinated to Japanese interests and, during the war, raw material flowed into Japan to support the war effort. Traditional lands were taken and redistributed to Japanese farmers with local farmers relocated and forced into collective farming units over smaller areas of land. When Manchukuo was founded as a Japanese puppet state, it inherited

11016-480: The Manchukuo military. The British writer Peter Fleming visited Manchukuo in 1935, and while riding a train through the countryside of Manchukuo, a group of Japanese colonists mistook his Swiss traveling companion Kini for a Russian refugee, and began to beat her up. It was only after Fleming was able to prove to the Japanese that she was Swiss, not Russian, that the Japanese stopped and apologized, saying that they would never had beaten her up if they had known she

11178-454: The New Army. The central foci of the uprisings were mostly connected with the Tongmenghui and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed before the Wuchang Uprising. In the spring of 1895, the Revive China Society , based in Hong Kong, planned the First Guangzhou Uprising  [ zh ] . Lu Haodong

11340-402: The Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a cabinet with Prince Qing as prime minister . By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from

11502-403: The Qing government to re-establish the Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as Yeung Ku-wan 's Furen Literary Society , created in Hong Kong in 1890. There were 15 members, including Tse Tsan-tai , who did political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first manhua , and who later became one of the core founders of

11664-461: The Qing state, hoping that an overthrow of the Qing would enable a Japanese takeover of the Manchu homeland, with the belief that Han Chinese would not oppose it. Tōyama Mitsuru , who was the Society's leader as well as a member of the pan-Asian secret society Gen'yōsha , additionally believed that the anti-Qing revolutionaries would even aid the Japanese in taking over, as well as helping them to enlarge

11826-414: The Soviet Union, which provided an example of rapid industrial growth achieved without capitalism. At least part of the reason why the Kwantung Army seized Manchuria in 1931 was to use it as a laboratory for creating an economic system geared towards the "national defense state"; colonial Manchuria offered up possibilities for the army carrying out drastic economic changes that were not possible in Japan. From

11988-686: The Soviets without firing a single shot; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against the Japanese forces. Puyi abdicated on 17 August and had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the government of China, when the Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949, where the authorities had him imprisoned on charges of war crimes , along with all other captured Manchukuo officials. From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria served as

12150-563: The Tanggu Truce was disbanded and reorganized as the East Hebei Army with Japanese military support. The Japanese goal was to establish a buffer zone between Manchukuo and China, but the pro-Japanese collaborationist regime was seen as an affront by the Chinese government and a violation of the Tanggu Truce. The East Hebei Autonomous government received a response in the form of Gen. Song Zheyuan 's Hebei-Chahar Political Government, which

12312-663: The Tongmenghui's establishment in Hubei. In July 1907, several members of Tongmenghui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the Yangtze . Liu Quiyi ( 劉揆一 ), Jiao Dafeng ( 焦達峰 ), Zhang Boxiang ( 張伯祥 ) and Sun Wu ( 孫武 ) established the Gongjinhui ( 共進會 ). In January 1911, the revolutionary group Zhengwu Xueshe (振武學社) was renamed as Wenxueshe (Literary Society) ( 文學社 ). Jiang Yiwu ( 蔣翊武 )

12474-682: The Zhennanguan Uprising ( 鎮南關起事 ) took place at Zhennanguan along the Chinese-Vietnamese border. Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang ( 黃明堂 ) to monitor the pass, which was guarded by a fort. With the assistance of supporters among the fort's defenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing and Hu Hanmin personally went to the tower to command the battle. The Qing government sent troops led by Long Jiguang and Lu Rongting to counterattack, and

12636-526: The anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting. The Black Dragon Society had very intimate, long term and influential relations with Sun Yat-sen who sometimes passed himself off as Japanese. According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold

12798-498: The area became an industrial powerhouse. Manchukuo had its own issued banknotes and postage stamps . Several independent banks were founded as well. The conquest of Manchuria proved to be extremely popular with the Japanese people who saw the conquest as providing a much-needed economic "lifeline" to their economy which had been badly hurt by the Great Depression. The very image of a "lifeline" suggested that Manchuria—which

12960-451: The army to disperse. Accordingly, this uprising also failed. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern participated in this uprising. A very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903, to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" ( 大明順天國 ). This involved Tse Tsan-tai , Li Jitang ( 李紀堂 ), Liang Muguang ( 梁慕光 ) and Hong Quanfu ( 洪全福 ), who formerly took part in the Jintian uprising during

13122-459: The art transport networks like the famous Asia Express railroad line, and modern infrastructure that was going up all over Manchukuo, Japan's newest colony become a popular tourist destination for middle-class Japanese, who wanted to see the "Brave New Empire" that was going up in the mainland of Asia. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942

13284-446: The beginning of China's early republican era . The Qing had struggled for a long time to reform the government and resist foreign aggression, but the program of reforms after 1900 was opposed by conservatives in the Qing court as too radical and by reformers as too slow. Several factions, including underground anti-Qing groups , revolutionaries in exile, reformers who wanted to save the monarchy by modernizing it, and activists across

13446-585: The beginning, the Army intended to turn Manchukuo into the industrial heartland of the empire, and starting in 1932, the Army sponsored a policy of forced industrialization that was closely modeled after the Five-Year Plan in the Soviet Union. Reflecting a dislike of capitalism, the Zaibatsu were excluded from Manchukuo and all of the heavy industrial factories were built and owned by Army-owned corporations. In 1935, there

13608-677: The cities of Qinzhou and Lianzhou in Guangdong. The struggle continued for fourteen days but was forced to stop after the revolutionaries ran out of supplies. In April 1908, another uprising was launched in Yunnan , Hekou, called the Hekou Uprising ( 雲南河口起義 ). Huang Mingtang ( 黃明堂 ) led two hundred men from Vietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April. Other participating revolutionaries included Wang Heshun ( 王和順 ) and Guan Renfu ( 關仁甫 ). They were outnumbered and defeated by government troops, however, and

13770-445: The conclusion that change was impossible in Japan, but still possible in Manchukuo, where paradoxically the Kwantung Army was sponsoring the sort of policies that were unacceptable in Japan. Moreover, the Great Depression had made it very difficult for university graduates in Japan to find work, which made the prospect of a well-paying job in Manchukuo very attractive to otherwise underemployed Japanese university graduates. In Manchukuo,

13932-454: The conquest meant that newspapers such as the Asahi Shimbun that had initially opposed the war swiftly pivoted to support the war as the best way of improving sales. The conquest of Manchuria was also presented as resolving the "unfinished business" left over the Russo-Japanese war that finally undid one of the key terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth. The most popular song in Japan in 1932 was

14094-475: The contributions made by middle-class Russians to community life. Mindful of the way that Americans and most Europeans enjoyed extraterritorial rights in China at the time, accounts in Chinese literature about the Russians living in Manchukuo and their "mixed water" children often display a certain schadenfreude recounting how the Russians in Manchukuo usually lived in poverty on the margins of Manchukuo society with

14256-473: The council was abolished. It received formal recognition from Japan on 15 September 1932 through the Japan–Manchukuo Protocol , after the assassination of Japanese Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi . The city of Changchun —renamed 新京 ; Xīnjīng ; 'new capital'—became the capital of Manchukuo. The local Chinese organized volunteer armies to oppose the Japanese and the new state required

14418-460: The country debated how or whether to overthrow the Qing dynasty. The flash-point came on 10 October 1911, with the Wuchang Uprising , an armed rebellion among members of the New Army . Similar revolts then broke out spontaneously around the country, and revolutionaries in all provinces of the country renounced the Qing dynasty. On 1 November 1911, the Qing court appointed Yuan Shikai (leader of

14580-626: The country. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of this unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin . When the Tongmenghui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenghui members were between 17 and 26 years of age. Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications such as the Journal of Current Pictorial . In February 1906, Rizhihui ( 日知會 ) also had many revolutionaries, including Sun Wu ( 孫武 ), Zhang Nanxian ( 張難先 ), He Jiwei and Feng Mumin. A nucleus of attendees at this conference evolved into

14742-462: The decidedly leftist thrust of social and economic policies in Manchukuo with the state playing an increasingly large role in society. Likewise, much of the debate between Japanese civil servants about the sort of social-economic policies Japan should follow in Manchukuo in the 1930s was framed in Marxist terms, with the civil servants arguing over whether Manchuria prior to September 1931 had a "feudal" or

14904-487: The end of World War II were sent back to their homeland in 1946–1948 by U.S. Navy ships in the operation now known as the Japanese repatriation from Huludao . Historians generally consider Manchukuo a puppet state of Imperial Japan due to the Japanese military's continued occupation of the country and its direct control over the government. In 1994, the Yomiuri Shimbun conducted an interview with Prince Mikasa of

15066-552: The existence of Manchukuo, the ethnic balance did not change significantly, except that Japan increased the Korean population in China . From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Longjiang , Rehe , Jilin , Fengtian , and Xing'an provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period estimated the total population as 36,933,000 residents. The majority of Han Chinese in Manchukuo believed that Manchuria

15228-515: The expression shakai [social] appeared in the title of a book, it was usually confiscated". Young also noted—with reference to Lord Acton's dictum that "Absolute power corrupts absolutely"—that for many of the idealistic young Japanese civil servants, who believed that they could affect a "revolution from above" that would make the lives of ordinary people better, that the absolute power that they enjoyed over millions of people "went to their heads", causing them to behave with abusive arrogance towards

15390-455: The fields of transportation, the government, and in business tended to be middle class, white-collar people such as executives, engineers, and managers, and those Japanese who working in Manchukuo as blue-collar employees tended to be skilled workers. In 1934, it was reported that a Japanese carpenter working in Manchukuo with its growing economy could earn twice as much as he could in Japan. With its gleaming modernist office buildings, state of

15552-494: The first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive the Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. The Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan in 1932. Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese woman, Kaoru Otsuki . The New Army

15714-521: The former Russian railroad network in southern Manchuria to owning the ports, mines, hotels, telephone lines, and sundry other businesses, dominating the economy of Manchuria. With the growth of the South Manchuria Railroad company ( Mantetsu ) came a growth in number of Japanese people living in Manchuria, from a Japanese population of 16,612 in 1906 to one of 233,749 in 1930. The majority of blue-collar employees for Mantetsu were Chinese, and

15876-530: The governors-general of Hunan and Hubei. About twenty conspirators were arrested and executed. On 8 October 1900, Sun Yat-sen ordered the launch of the Huizhou Uprising ( 惠州起義 ). The revolutionary army was led by Zheng Shiliang and initially included 20,000 men, who fought for half a month. However, after Japanese prime minister Hirobumi Ito prohibited Sun Yat-sen from carrying out revolutionary activities on Taiwan, Zheng Shiliang had no choice but to order

16038-475: The heady luxury of colonial consumption. They made it into a project of radical change, experimentation and possibility". The Kwantung Army for its part tolerated the talk of social revolution in Manchukuo as the best way of gaining support from the Han majority of Manchukuo, who did not want Manchuria to be severed from China. Even more active in going to Manchukuo were the products of Tenkō ('changing directions'),

16200-522: The imperial family. Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. Miyazaki Touten was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and Ryōhei Uchida . Homer Lea , an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in

16362-463: The interwar period, Manchuria once again became a political and military battleground between Russia, Japan, and China. Imperial Japan moved into Russia's far eastern territories, taking advantage of internal chaos following the Russian Revolution . However, in the years following the establishment of the Soviet Union, a combination of Soviet military successes and American economic pressure forced

16524-479: The life of ordinary people, to determine Manchukuo was in the "feudal" or "capitalist" stage of development. Starting in 1936, the Manchukuo state launched Five Year Plans for economic development, which were closely modeled after the Five Year Plans in the Soviet Union. In theory, the Japanese were creating an entirely new, independent state, and this allowed for a considerable level of experimentation regarding

16686-403: The local Chinese more economically successful. The South Korean historian Bong Inyoung noted when it came to writing about the "mixed water" people, Chinese writers tended to treat them as not entirely Chinese, but on the other hand were willing to accept these people as Chinese provided that would totally embrace Chinese culture by renouncing their Russian heritage, thus making Chineseness as much

16848-590: The name of Manchukuo has often been prefixed with 偽 ; wěi ; 'so-called' to stress its perceived illegitimacy. In English, 'Manchukuo' derives from the Wade–Giles romanization Man-chou-kuo , incorporating the anglicized demonym 'Manchu'. Other European languages used equivalent terms: Manchukuo was known to its Axis allies as Manciukuò in Italian and Mandschukuo or Mandschureich in German. Manchukuo

17010-513: The new armies. The famine in 1906 and 1907 was also a major contributor to the revolution. Following the death of the Guangxu Emperor and Cixi in 1908, the throne was inherited by the two-year-old Xuantong Emperor , with Prince Chun as a regent. The Prince continued the reform path of Cixi, but conservative Manchu elements in the court opposed it, causing further support for revolutionaries. Many revolutionaries and groups wanted to overthrow

17172-431: The nominal transition from republic to empire, Puyi was proclaimed as the emperor of Manchukuo. The Japanese population of Manchuria increased dramatically during this period, largely due to Japan's efforts to resettle young, land-poor farmers from the inner islands . By 1945, more than a million Japanese people had settled within Manchukuo. The region's Korean population also increased during this period. Regions in

17334-529: The number "6348". In 1900, after the Boxer Rebellion started, Tang Caichang ( 唐才常 ) and Tan Sitong of the previous Foot Emancipation Society organized the Independence Army. The Independence Army Uprising ( 自立軍起義 ) was planned to occur on 23 August 1900. Their goal was to overthrow Empress Dowager Cixi to establish a constitutional monarchy under the Guangxu Emperor. Their plot was discovered by

17496-525: The official persecution that Jews experienced under Japan's ally Nazi Germany, and Japanese authorities were involved in closing down local anti-Semitic publications such as the Russian Fascist Party's newspaper Nash Put . However, Jews in Manchukuo were victims of harassment by antisemitic elements among the White Russian population, one notable incident being the murder of Simon Kaspé . In 1937

17658-461: The ones organized by Sun and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing Tongmenghui was founded and based in exile in Japan where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered. The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. The Japanese were the ones who helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together, and there were Japanese like Tōten Miyazaki inside of

17820-563: The opium trade that the Qing were currently trying to destroy. The Society would support Sun and other anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing ultimately collapsed. In Japan, many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered in exile, where they founded and operated the Tongmenghui resistance movement, whose first meeting was hosted by the Black Dragon Society. The Black Dragon Society had a large impact on Sun specifically, cultivating an intimate relationship with him. Sun often promoted pan-Asianism, and sometimes even passed himself off as Japanese. In

17982-582: The opportunity, capturing several towns. They defeated the Qing army once again in Bazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the number of revolutionary forces increased to two hundred men at its height. The uprising, however, ultimately failed. On 6 July 1907, Xu Xilin of Guangfuhui led an uprising in Anqing , Anhui, which became known as the Anqing Uprising ( 安慶起義) . Xu Xilin at

18144-564: The peace. The perception in Japan was the Treaty of Portsmouth was a humiliating diplomatic disaster that did not place all of Manchuria into the Japanese sphere of influence as widely expected, and the question of Manchuria was still "unfinished business" that would one day be resolved by the Imperial Army. In 1906, Japan established the South Manchurian Railway on the southern half of the former Chinese Eastern Railway built by Russia from Manzhouli to Vladivostok via Harbin with

18306-660: The permanent abolition of the dynastic system in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution , with Puyi , the final emperor of China , forced to abdicate at the age of six. In 1931, Manchuria was invaded and occupied by the Empire of Japan following the Mukden incident . A puppet government was set up the following year, with Puyi brought in by the Japanese to serve as its nominal regent, though he himself had no actual political power. Japanese officials ultimately made all pertinent decisions, and exercised total control over Puyi's court and personal safety. Upon

18468-424: The policies that the new state would be carrying out. Many university graduates in Japan who were ostensibly opposed to the social system within Japan itself, instead went to Manchukuo with the belief that they could implement reforms that might later inspire policy within Japan itself. This was especially the case since it was impossible to effect any reforms in Japan itself as the very act of thinking about "altering

18630-435: The pretext for seizing the region. Marshal Zhang was killed when the bridge his train was riding across was blown up while three Chinese men were murdered and explosive equipment was placed on their corpses to make it appear that they were the killers, but the plot was foiled when Zhang's son Zhang Xueliang, the 'Young Marshal', succeeded him without incident while Tokyo refused to send additional troops to Manchuria. Given that

18792-547: The railroad network of Manchuria that was built originally during an economic and military struggle between Russia and Japan over Chinese territory and became a focal point before and after the Russo-Japanese War . Chinese warlords had also aimed to build local lines when possible. Manchukuo's railroad system would consist mainly of the South Manchuria Railway , a Japanese concession in the Republic of China, and

18954-489: The region from Chinese control and to create a Japanese-aligned puppet state. To create an air of legitimacy, the last Emperor of China, Puyi , was invited to come with his followers and act as the head of state for Manchuria. One of his faithful companions was Zheng Xiaoxu , a Qing reformist and loyalist. The "Northeast Supreme Administrative Council" was established as a Japanese puppet organization in Manchuria following

19116-712: The region. Mantetsu personnel were involved in the economic exploitation of occupied China during World War II, and colonial planning at the behest of the Imperial Japanese Army. Many railway lines in Manchukuo were owned by the Manchukuo National Railway . After 1933, the Manchukuo National Railway was fully owned by the South Manchuria Railway/Mantetsu. Mantetsu had close to monopoly status and its properties were guarded by

19278-407: The revolution. Some foreigners, such as English explorer Arthur de Carle Sowerby , led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912. The far right-wing Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus, believing that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose

19440-573: The revolutionaries were forced to retreat into the mountainous areas. After this uprising's failure, Sun was forced to move to Singapore due to anti-Sun sentiments within the revolutionary groups. He would not return to the mainland until after the Wuchang Uprising. On 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-lian Uprising ( 欽廉上思起義 ), from a base in Vietnam and attacked

19602-426: The same year, Sun Yat-sen sent more revolutionaries to Huizhou to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu Uprising" ( 惠州七女湖起義 ). On 2 June, Deng Zhiyu ( 鄧子瑜 ) and Chen Chuan ( 陳純 ) gathered some followers, and together they seized Qing arms in the lake, 20 km (12 mi) from Huizhou. They killed several Qing soldiers and attacked Taiwei ( 泰尾 ) on 5 June. The Qing army fled in disorder, and the revolutionaries exploited

19764-406: The samurai caste, and almost all of the officers in the Imperial Japanese Army came from samurai families, which made the Kwantung Army very hostile towards any sort of land reform which might serve as an example for Japanese peasants. In October 1941, the Soviet spy ring headed by Richard Sorge was uncovered in Tokyo, which caused the authorities to become paranoid about Soviet espionage, and led to

19926-442: The sort that the Kenpeitai normally employed in its investigations. When the Japanese surrender was announced on 15 August 1945, Puyi agreed to abdicate. Manchukuo was initially divided into three provinces. This number increased to five in 1934 when Sanjiang and Heihe were split off from Longjiang Province . A special ward of Beiman ( Chinese : 北滿特別區 ) existed between 1 July 1933 and 1 January 1936. In 1941, Manchukuo

20088-460: The state in Manchukuo to grow even bigger as a policy of "total war" came in, which meant there was a pressing demand for people with university degrees trained to think "scientifically". Fogel wrote that almost all of the university graduates from Japan who arrived in Manchukuo in the late 1930s were "largely left-wing Socialists and Communists. This was precisely at the time when Marxism had been all but banned in Japan, when (as Yamada Gōichi put) "if

20250-422: The subjects to see the effects of chemicals and germs on the human body. In the late 1930s, the doctors of Unit 731 demanded more European subjects to experiment upon in order to test the efficiency the strains of anthrax and plague that they were developing, leading to a great many of the Russians living in Manchukuo becoming the unwilling human guinea pigs of Unit 731. The Russian Fascist Party , which worked with

20412-535: The takeover. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and that Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlarge the opium trade in China, while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed. The far right-wing Japanese ultranationalist Gen'yōsha leader Tōyama Mitsuru supported anti-Manchu, anti-Qing revolutionary activities including

20574-407: The territory of their state, which among other regions included present-day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet, with the idea of 'China' itself, rejecting notions that only Han areas were core parts of China. The Qing thought of China as fundamentally multi-ethnic: the term 'Chinese people' referred to all the Han, Manchu and Mongol subjects within the empire; likewise, the term 'Chinese language'

20736-451: The time was the police commissioner as well as the supervisor of the police academy. He led an uprising that aimed to assassinate the provincial governor of Anhui, En Ming ( 恩銘 ). They were defeated after four hours of fighting. Xu was captured, and En Ming's bodyguards cut out his heart and liver and ate them. His cousin Qiu Jin was executed a few days later. From August to September 1907,

20898-399: The total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese (96%, which should have included the Manchu people ), 590,760 Japanese (2%), 680,000 Koreans (2%), and 98,431 (<1%) of other nationality: White Russians , Mongols , etc. Around 80% of the population was rural. During

21060-655: The uprising failed. On 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising ( 馬炮營起義 ) was launched by revolutionary group Yuewanghui ( 岳王會 ) member Xiong Chenggei ( 熊成基) in Anhui . Yuewanghui, at this time, was a subset of Tongmenghui . This uprising also failed. In February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising ( 庚戌新軍起義 ), also known as the Guangzhou New Army Uprising ( 廣州新軍起義 ), took place. This involved

21222-545: The uprising, defeating the peasant rebels by September. About 300 Yellow Sand insurgents were killed or wounded in the fighting. The East Hebei government survived the Tongzhou mutiny in late July 1937 before being absorbed into the collaborationist Provisional Government of China in February 1938. 39°48′N 116°48′E  /  39.800°N 116.800°E  / 39.800; 116.800 Manchukuo Manchukuo

21384-506: The very people that they had gone to Manchukuo to help. Young wrote that it was a "monumental conceit" of the part of the young idealists to believe that they could use the Kwantung Army to achieve a "revolution from above" when it was the Kwantung Army that was using them. The ambitious plans for land reform in Manchukuo were vetoed by the Kwantung Army for precisely the reason that it might inspire similar reforms in Japan. The landlords in Japan tended to come from families who once belonged to

21546-590: The wake of the Xinhai Revolution, the Black Dragons began infiltrating China, making inroads selling opium and spreading anti-Communist sentiment. Eventually, they also began directly agitating for a Japanese takeover of Manchuria. With the Russo-Japanese War , Japanese influence largely replaced that of Russia in Manchuria. Japan had mobilized one million soldiers to fight the Russians in Manchuria, one for every eight Japanese families. Despite shocking success,

21708-530: The western part of the country with large Mongolian populations were ruled under a slightly different system, reflecting the distinct traditions extant there. The southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula , now the city of Dalian , continued to be ruled directly by Japan as the Kwantung Leased Territory until the end of the war. The state was ultimately toppled at the end of World War II with

21870-445: The women, who answered the call of this land of opportunity, brought with them tremendous drive and ambition. In their efforts to remake their own lives, they remade an empire. They invested it with their preoccupations of modernity and their dreams of a Utopian future. They pushed it to embrace idealist rhetoric of social reform and justified itself in terms of Chinese nationalist aspiration. They turned it to architectural ostentation and

22032-532: Was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise". The Guangfuhui (Restoration Society) was also founded in 1904, in Shanghai, by Cai Yuanpei . Other notable members include Zhang Binglin and Tao Chengzhang. Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen. One of the most famous female revolutionaries was Qiu Jin , who fought for women's rights and

22194-569: Was "to expel the Tatar barbarians, to revive Zhonghua , to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people." ( 驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權 ). Many underground groups promoted the ideas of "Resist Qing and restore Ming" (反清復明) that had been around since the days of the Taiping Rebellion . Others, such as Zhang Binglin , spread calls to "slay the Manchus" ( 興漢滅胡 ) and the concept of "Anti-Manchuism" ( 排滿主義 ). Many groups supported

22356-530: Was Swiss, saying that they sincerely believed she was a Russian when they assaulted her. Fleming observed that in Manchukuo: "you can beat White Russians up till you are blue in the face, because they are people without status in the world, citizens of nowhere". Fleming further noted that the Japanese in Manchukuo had a strong dislike of all European people, and because the Russians in Manchukuo were stateless without an embassy to issue protests if they were victimized,

22518-588: Was Tachibana Shiraki, who had once been a Marxist Sinologist until after he was arrested and undergoing tenko became a fanatical right-winger. Tachibana went to Manchukuo in 1932, proclaiming that the theory of the "five races" working together was the best solution to Asia's problems and argued in his writings that only Japan could save China from itself, which was a complete change from his previous policies, where he criticized Japan for exploiting China. Other left-wing activists like Ohgami Suehiro did not undergo tenko , but still went to work in Manchukuo, believing it

22680-524: Was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China that existed from 1932 until its dissolution in 1945. It was ostensibly founded as a republic , its territory consisting of the lands seized in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria ; it was later declared to be a constitutional monarchy in 1934, though very little changed in the actual functioning of government. Manchukuo received limited diplomatic recognition , mostly from states aligned with

22842-486: Was a change when the "reform bureaucrat" Nobusuke Kishi was appointed Deputy Minister of Industrial Development. Kishi persuaded the Army to allow the zaibatsu to invest in Manchukuo, arguing that having the state carry out the entire industrialization of Manchukuo was costing too much money. Kishi pioneered an elitist system where bureaucrats such as himself developed economic plans, which the zaibatsu had to then carry out. Kishi succeeded in marshaling private capital in

23004-627: Was a failure. Under pressure from the Qing government, the government of Hong Kong banned the two men from the territory for five years. Sun Yat-sen went into exile, promoting the Chinese revolution and raising funds in Japan, the United States, Canada, and Britain. In 1901, following the Huizhou Uprising, Yeung Ku-wan was assassinated by Qing agents in Hong Kong. After his death, his family protected his identity by not putting his name on his tomb, just

23166-480: Was abruptly canceled by a conservative coup led by Empress Dowager Cixi . The Emperor was put under house arrest in June 1898, where he remained until his death in 1908. Reformers Kang and Liang exiled themselves to avoid being executed. The Empress Dowager controlled policy until her death in 1908, with support from officials such as Yuan. Attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians in the Boxer Rebellion , encouraged by

23328-590: Was also from Guangfuhui. Gelaohui (Elder Brother Society) was another group, with Zhu De , Wu Yuzhang , Liu Zhidan ( 劉志丹 ) and He Long . This revolutionary group would eventually develop a strong link with the later Communist Party . Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, Huaxinghui and Guangfuhui in the summer of 1905, thereby establishing the unified Tongmenghui (United League) in August 1905 in Tokyo. While it started in Tokyo, it had loose organizations distributed across and outside

23490-657: Was also purged of the political and military influence of the Kuomintang government of China. On 15 November 1935, the local Chinese administrator of the 22 counties in Hebei province, Yin Ju-keng , proclaimed the territories under his control to be autonomous. Ten days later, on 25 November, he proclaimed them to be independent of the Republic of China and to have their capital at Tongzhou . The new government immediately signed economic and military treaties with Japan. The Demilitarized Zone Peace Preservation Corps that had been created by

23652-524: Was changed to the 'Empire of Manchuria' in 1934 upon the coronation of Puyi as the Kangde Emperor. The name in Chinese and Japanese literally translates to 'Empire of Great Manchuria', with the prefixed 大 ; dà ; 'great' suggestive of official names for previous Chinese dynasties, such as ' Great Ming ' and ' Great Qing ', though this went largely unreflected in English translations. The Qing dynasty

23814-527: Was chosen as the leader. These two organizations would play a big role in the Wuchang Uprising. Many young revolutionaries adopted the anarchist program . In Tokyo, Liu Shipei proposed to overthrow the Manchus and return to Chinese classical values. In Paris, well-connected young intellectuals, Li Shizhen, Wu Zhihui and Zhang Renjie , agreed with Sun's revolutionary program and joined the Tongmenghui, but argued that simply replacing one government with another would not be progress; fundamental cultural change,

23976-411: Was formed in 1901 after the defeat of the Qing in the First Sino-Japanese War . They were launched by a decree from eight provinces. New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped. Recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions. Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated

24138-444: Was founded in the 17th century by Manchus hailing from northeastern China, conquering the ethnically Han Shun and Ming dynasties. Upon establishing themselves, the Qing referred to their state as 中國 ; Zhōngguó ; 'central country' in Chinese and equivalently as ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ; Dulimbai gurun in Manchu. The name was used in official documents and treaties, and while conducting foreign affairs. The Qing equated

24300-417: Was nothing more than a figurehead and real authority rested in the hands of the Japanese military officials. An imperial palace was specially built for the emperor. The Manchu ministers all served as frontmen for their Japanese vice-ministers, who made all decisions. In this manner, Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China over the course of the 1930s. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources,

24462-458: Was often referred to in English simply as 'Manchuria', itself an unfamiliar term within China; its use had previously been widely encouraged by the Japanese in order to connote a level of separation from the rest of China. This was in stark contrast to the position held by the Qing, that Manchus were one of several integral Chinese peoples, with their homeland being an integral part of China. The historian Norman Smith wrote that "the term 'Manchuria'

24624-497: Was one of the 72. On the eve of battle, he wrote "A Letter to My Wife" ( 與妻訣別書 ), later to be considered a masterpiece in Chinese literature. The Literary Society ( 文學社 ) and the Progressive Association ( 共進會 ) were revolutionary organizations involved in the uprising that mainly began with a Railway Protection Movement protest. In the late summer, some Hubei New Army units were ordered to neighboring Sichuan to quell

24786-400: Was possible to effect social reforms that would end the "semi-feudal" condition of the Chinese peasants of Manchukuo, and that he could use the Kwantung Army to effect left-wing reforms in Manchukuo. Ohgami went to work in the "agricultural economy" desk of the Social Research Unit of the South Manchurian Railroad company, writing up reports about the rural economy of Manchukuo that were used by

24948-464: Was reorganized into 19 provinces, with the two special cities of Xinjing and Harbin. Each province was in turn divided in four (Xing'an dong) and 24 (Fengtian) prefectures . Harbin was later incorporated into Binjiang province . Andong and Jinzhou provinces separated themselves from Fengtian while Binjiang and Jiandao separated themselves from Jilin in the same year. Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. During

25110-599: Was rich in natural resources—was essential for Japan to recover from the Great Depression , which explains why the conquest was so popular at the time and later why the Japanese people were so completely hostile towards any suggestion of letting Manchuria go. At the time, censorship in Japan was nowhere near as stringent as it would later become, and the American historian Louise Young noted: "Had they wished, it would have been possible in 1931 and 1932 for journalists and editors to express anti-war sentiments". The popularity of

25272-553: Was rightfully part of China, and they both passively and violently resisted Japan's propaganda that Manchukuo was a "multinational state". After the Russian Civil War (1917–1922), thousands of Russians fled to Manchuria to join the Russian community already there. The Russians living in Manchuria were stateless and as whites had an ambiguous status in Manchukuo, which was meant to be a Pan-Asian state, whose official "five races" were

25434-424: Was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' Blue Sky with a White Sun flag. On 26 October 1895, Yeung Ku-wan and Sun Yat-sen led Zheng Shiliang and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing to capture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the Qing government. The government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed. The First Guangzhou Uprising

25596-488: Was the government-sponsored Concordia Association , although various émigré groups were permitted their own political associations such as the White Russian Russian Fascist Party . The American historian Louise Young noted that one of the most striking aspects of Manchukuo was that many of the young Japanese civil servants who went to work in Manchukuo were on the left, or at least had once been. In

25758-477: Was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ. Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in funding revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of British Malaya . Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution". The Qing government established new schools and encouraged students to study abroad as part of

25920-473: Was to a certain extent based on racism with the Japanese as the "great Yamato race", but there was always a certain dichotomy in Japanese thinking between an ideology based on racial differences based on bloodlines versus the idea of Pan-Asianism with Japan as the natural leader of all the Asian peoples. In 1940, ethnic Russians were included among the other nationalities of Manchukuo as candidates for conscription into

26082-681: Was under the Nanjing government, launched on 18 December 1935. Chinese soldiers remained in the area. In July 1936, a peasant uprising against the East Hebei Autonomous Government broke out in Miyun District . Led by an old Taoist priest, the rebels were organized by the Yellow Sand Society and managed to defeat an East Hebei Army unit that was sent to suppress them. Thereafter, the Imperial Japanese Army mobilized to quell

26244-707: Was used to refer to the Manchu and Mongolian languages in addition to those language varieties that descended from Old Chinese . Moreover, the Qing stated explicitly in various edicts, as well as within the Treaty of Nerchinsk , that the Manchu home provinces belonged to China. The Manchu homeland was referred to as the 三東省 ; Sān dōngshěng ; 'three eastern provinces' during the Qing, those provinces being Jilin , Heilongjiang , and Liaoning . These regions were first delineated in 1683, but would not become actual provinces until 1907. Jilin and Heilongjiang, considered primarily Manchu, were separated from Han Liaoning along

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