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48-509: The soil raster data files are accompanied by as many static soil maps (PDF Format, A3), which allow the user to have a quick overview of the distribution of soil characteristics in a spatial way. The many rasters include parameters such as soil texture (clay, silt and sand), parent material, WRB soil type, Obstacle to roots, soil depth, Impermeability, Soil Water Regime, Water Management System, mineralogy, cation exchange capacity, packing density, available water capacity. The European Soil Database

96-554: A B horizon. An underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five. In the following, the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their position from top to bottom within the soil profile. Not all of them are present in every soil. Soils with a history of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in

144-468: A consistent manner. Due to the different definitions of the horizon symbols, the systems cannot be mixed. In most soil classification systems, horizons are used to define soil types. The German system uses entire horizon sequences for definition. Other systems pick out certain horizons, the "diagnostic horizons", for the definition; examples are the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB),

192-511: A high concentration of roots in topsoil since this is where plants obtain most of their vital nutrients . It also plays host to significant bacterial , fungal and entomological activity without which soil quality would degrade and become less suitable for plants. Bacteria and fungi can be essential in facilitating nutrient exchange with plants and in breaking down organic matter into a form that roots can absorb. Insects also play important roles in breaking down material and aerating and rotating

240-413: A layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly colour and texture. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance) and in terms relative to the surrounding material, i.e. 'coarser' or 'sandier' than

288-586: A litter layer; water saturation > 30 consecutive days in most years or drained ; generally regarded as peat layer or organic limnic layer. O: Organic horizon or organotechnic layer, not forming part of a litter layer; water saturation ≤ 30 consecutive days in most years and not drained; generally regarded as non-peat and non-limnic horizon. A: Mineral horizon at the mineral soil surface or buried; contains organic matter that has at least partly been modified in-situ; soil structure and/or structural elements created by cultivation in ≥ 50% (by volume, related to

336-512: A multipurpose grade and certain levels can alter with regard to soil pH . Standards also exist for specialist soils suitable for plants with specific needs including acidic or ericaceous soil and calcareous soil. These have different pH levels to typical soil and are meant for growing different plant species. Low fertility, low fertility acidic and low fertility calcareous are other soil classifications designed for plants which thrive in nutrient sparse soil. Examples of specialist plants include

384-458: A pronounced soil structure. But in some soils, clay minerals, iron , aluminum , organic compounds, and other constituents are soluble and move downwards. When this eluviation is pronounced, a lighter coloured E subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the A horizon. The A horizon may also be the result of a combination of soil bioturbation and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded topsoil . In this case,

432-574: A result of farm runoff or from sewage. These harmful algal blooms can be toxic and have devastating impacts on ecosystems and wildlife. They are often referred to as red tides due to the presence of toxic red algae which can impact human food sources by contaminating seafood. Sustainable techniques attempt to slow erosion through the use of cover crops in order to build organic matter in the soil. The United States loses almost 3 tons of topsoil per acre per year. 1 inch (2.5 cm) of topsoil can take between 500 and 1,000 years to form naturally, making

480-414: A result of soil-forming processes ( pedogenesis ). Layers that have not undergone such processes may be simply called "layers". Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is denominated with a capital letter "O" (letters may differ depending on the system). The mineral soil usually starts with an A horizon. If a well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists, it is generally called

528-462: A web-based application for the navigation of ESDB related data through a map interface. This map service allows interaction through soil parameter selection and map operations such as zooming and panning. The data can be queried and identified. According to INSPIRE principles, this application has been created and extended using international standards (OGC - WMS) so that it is possible to combine layers of maps located in different map servers all around

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576-572: Is also used for proper surface grading near residential buildings. In order to protect against flooding the International Residential Code requires a 2% slope (2.4 in (61 mm)) for the first ten feet away from the home. Energy Star requires a rate of 0.5 in/ft (42 mm/m). Commercially available topsoil (manufactured or naturally occurring) in the United Kingdom must be classified to British Standard BS 3882, with

624-707: Is based on experts' knowledge. In addition to the European Soil Database, the European Commission runs the LUCAS topsoil survey collecting soil samples across the soils of European Union. Based on LUCAS topsoil database, scientists have modelled the spatial distribution of soil physical properties (Sand, Silt, Clay, Coarse fragments, etc). In an attempt to expand soil data at European scale, the European Commission Joint Research Centre runs

672-472: Is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The H horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the O horizons, the H horizons are saturated with water for prolonged periods, or were once saturated but are now drained artificially. In many H horizons,

720-451: Is followed by the ρ. 4. If two suffixes belong to the same soil-forming process, they follow each other immediately; in the combination of t and n, the t is written first; rules 1, 2 and 3 have to be followed, if applicable. Examples: Btn, Bhs, Bsh, Bhsm, Bsmh. 5. If in a B horizon the characteristics of the suffixes g, h, k, l, o, q, s, t, v, or y are strongly expressed, the suffix w is not used, even if its characteristics are present; if

768-512: Is known as the O Horizon or A Horizon. Soil horizons are layers parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. The depth of the topsoil layer is measured as the depth of the surface to the first densely packed soil layer, known as subsoil . In the United States , there is no federal, legal definition of the word topsoil when used in commerce. Organisations such as

816-511: Is not regarded to form part of a litter layer. The soil surface (0 cm) is by convention the surface of the soil after removing, if present, the litter layer and, if present, below a layer of living plants (e.g. living mosses). The mineral soil surface is the upper limit of the uppermost layer consisting of mineral material. A soil layer is a zone in the soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, with properties different from layers above and/or below it. If at least one of these properties

864-487: Is possible to create artificial topsoil which supports some of the engineering or biological uses of topsoil. More traditional examples of artificial plant-growth media include terra preta and potting mix . Manufactured topsoil based on minerals, biosolids , compost and/or paper mill sludge is available commercially. A Victorian open-cut coal mine was rehabilitated with low-quality artificial topsoil made from local materials. In soil classification systems, topsoil

912-406: Is referred to as illuviation . The B horizon has generally a soil structure. C) Substratum: Layer of non-indurated poorly weathered or unweathered rocks. This layer may accumulate more soluble compounds like CaCO 3 . Soils formed in situ from non-indurated material exhibit similarities to this C layer. R) Bedrock : R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at

960-457: Is the primary resource for plants to grow and crops to thrive. The main two parameters for this are carbon and nitrogen. The carbon provides energy and nitrogen is required for plants to build proteins and hence tissues. Plants require them in a range of ratios to enable suitable growth. An optimum figure for topsoil in the UK is a C:N ratio of less than 20:1. A sawdust base typically has a high C:N ratio in

1008-527: Is the result of soil-forming processes, the layer is called a soil horizon . In the following, the term layer is used to indicate the possibility that soil-forming processes did not occur. The following layers are distinguished (see Chapter 3.3 of the WRB Manual): The designation consists of a capital letter (master symbol), which in most cases is followed by one or more lowercase letters (suffixes). H: Organic or organotechnic layer, not forming part of

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1056-615: The British Standards Institution (BSI) and the North Carolina Department of Agriculture publish guidelines for soil quality and the desired levels of topsoil nutrients broadly suitable for many plants. Two common types of commercial topsoil are Bulk and Bagged Topsoil. The following table illustrates major differences between the two. Alternatively the BSI relates the following values: The preceding tables are for

1104-517: The USDA soil taxonomy and the Australian Soil Classification . Diagnostic horizons are usually indicated with names, e.g. the "cambic horizon" or the "spodic horizon". The WRB lists 40 diagnostic horizons. In addition to these diagnostic horizons, some other soil characteristics may be needed to define a soil type. Some soils do not have a clear development of horizons. A soil horizon is

1152-464: The Venus flytrap which is found in low nitrogen and phosphorus environments so is less tolerant of highly nutrient rich environments than other plants and less able to compete in them. Whereas blueberries require ericaceous soil to grow well and clover grows well in calcareous soil. Soils must therefore be selected to suit the plants which are intended to be grown and hence standards are required. Topsoil

1200-421: The A horizon is regarded as a "biomantle". B) Subsoil : This layer normally has less organic matter than the A horizon, so its colour is mainly derived from iron oxides. Iron oxides and clay minerals accumulate as a result of weathering. In soil, where substances move down from the topsoil, this is the layer where they accumulate. The process of accumulation of clay minerals, iron, aluminum, and organic compounds,

1248-569: The British Standard and European Norm BS EN 12579:2013 Soil improvers and growing media – Sampling. Topsoil erosion occurs when the topsoil layer is blown or washed away. The estimated annual costs of public and environmental health losses related to soil erosion in the United States exceed $ 45 billion. Conventional industrial agriculture practices such as ploughing and spraying high quantities of synthetic liquid fertilisers can degrade

1296-448: The LUCAS topsoil survey collecting soil samples across the soils of European Union. Based on LUCAS topsoil database, scientists have modelled the spatial distribution of soil physical properties (sand, silt, clay, coarse fragments, etc). Additionally, in ESDAC, a number of mapping services has been developed in order to allow the public to navigate and query soil data. The ESDAC Map Viewer is

1344-423: The WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The O horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the H horizons, the O horizons are not saturated with water for prolonged periods and not drained artificially. In many O horizons, the residues are leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens. Although these horizons form above

1392-581: The World. Download Sources : Topsoil Topsoil is the upper layer of soil . It has the highest concentration of organic matter and microorganisms and is where most of the Earth's biological soil activity occurs. Topsoil is composed of mineral particles and organic matter and usually extends to a depth of 5-10 inches (13–25 cm). Together these make a substrate capable of holding water and air which encourages biological activity. There are generally

1440-519: The base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons consist largely of continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed in situ from bedrock will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer. The designations are found in Chapter 10 of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources Manual , 4th edition (2022). The chapter starts with some general definitions : The fine earth comprises

1488-407: The characteristics of the mentioned suffixes are weakly expressed and the characteristics of the suffix w are present as well, the suffixes are combined. 6. In H and O layers, the i, e or a is written first. 7. The @, f and b are written last, if b occurs together with @ or f (only if other suffixes are present as well): @b, fb. 8. Besides that, combinations must be in the sequence of dominance,

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1536-432: The current version dated 2015. The standard has several classifications of topsoil with the final classification requiring material to meet certain threshold criteria such as nutrient content, extractable phytotoxic elements, particle size distribution, organic matter content, carbon:nitrogen ratio, electrical conductivity, loss on ignition, pH, chemical and physical contamination. The topsoil must be sampled in accordance with

1584-466: The dominant one first. Examples: Btng, Btgb, Bkcyc. If the characteristics of two or more master layers are superimposed to each other, the master symbols are combined without anything in between, the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: AhBw, BwAh, AhE, EAh, EBg, BgE, BwC, CBw, BsC, CBs. If the characteristics of two or more master layers occur in the same depth range, but occupy distinct parts clearly separated from each other,

1632-418: The elements. The structure becomes affected once the soil is dehydrated. Dehydrated topsoil volume substantially decreases and may suffer wind erosion . Topsoil is naturally produced in the process of soil formation or pedogenesis . Natural topsoil is mined and conditioned for human use and makes up the bulk of commercial topsoil available. The current rate of use and erosion outpaces soil generation. It

1680-441: The field, attention must be paid to the local geomorphology and the historical uses to which the land has been put, in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons. [REDACTED] A) Surface soil : Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and soil life . Additionally, due to weathering , oxides (mainly iron oxides) and clay minerals are formed and accumulated. It has

1728-408: The fine earth), i.e. rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume). E: Mineral horizon; has lost by downward movement within the soil (vertically or laterally) one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter. B: Mineral horizon that has (at least originally) formed below an A or E horizon; rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume, related to

1776-536: The fine earth); one or more of the following processes of soil formation : Nota bene: B horizons may show other accumulations as well. C: Mineral layer; unconsolidated (can be cut with a spade when moist), or consolidated and more fractured than the R layer; no soil formation, or soil formation that does not meet the criteria of the A, E, and B horizon. R: Consolidated rock; air-dry or drier specimens, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours; fractures, if present, occupy < 10% (by volume, related to

1824-491: The horizons above and below. The identified horizons are indicated with symbols, which are mostly used in a hierarchical way. Master horizons (main horizons) are indicated by capital letters. Suffixes, in form of lowercase letters and figures, further differentiate the master horizons. There are many different systems of horizon symbols in the world. No one system is more correct—as artificial constructs, their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in

1872-447: The master symbols are combined with the slash (/), the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: Bt/E (interfingering of E material into a Bt horizon), C/Bt (Bt horizon forming lamellae within a C layer). W cannot be combined with other master symbols. H, O, I, and R can only be combined using the slash. The sequence of the layers is from top to down with a hyphen in between. If lithic discontinuities occur,

1920-640: The order of 400:1 while an alfalfa hay has a low carbonaceous content and can typically have a C:N ratio around 12:1. A variety of soil mixtures are sold commercially as topsoil. Typical uses for this product are improving gardens and lawns or for use in container gardens . Potting soil , compost , manure and peat are also sold for domestic uses with each having specific intended purposes. Topsoil products typically are not as suitable for potting plants or growing fruit and veg as potting soil or compost. Using it for this purpose can also work out prohibitively expensive compared to other alternatives. Topsoil

1968-719: The quality of the soil. Intensive farming methods to satisfy high food demands with high crop yields and growing crops in monocultures can deplete the soil nutrients and damage the soil microbiome . These factors can affect the consistency and quality of the soil resulting in increased erosion. Surface runoff from farm fields is a type of nonpoint source pollution . Topsoil as well as farm fertilizers and other potential pollutants run off unprotected farm fields when heavy rains occur. This can result in polluting waterways and groundwater and may potentially contaminate drinking water sources. Algae blooms can occur when high quantities of nutrients flood rivers, lakes or oceans often as

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2016-401: The rate of topsoil erosion a serious ecological concern. Based on 2014 trends, the world has about 60 years of topsoil left. Soil conservation is the prevention of loss of the topmost layer of the soil from erosion or prevention of reduced fertility caused by over usage, acidification , salinization or other chemical soil contamination . Soil horizon A soil horizon is

2064-408: The residues are predominantly mosses. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. H horizons may be overlain by O horizons that especially form after drainage. O horizons or layers : These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In

2112-429: The soil constituents ≤ 2 mm. The whole soil comprises fine earth, coarse fragments, artefacts, cemented parts, and dead plant residues of any size. A litter layer is a loose layer that contains > 90% (by volume, related to the fine earth plus all dead plant residues) recognizable dead plant tissues (e.g. undecomposed leaves). Dead plant material still connected to living plants (e.g. dead parts of Sphagnum mosses)

2160-515: The soil. Many species directly contribute to the health of the soil resulting in stronger plants. A healthy topsoil layer is a very rich microbiome that hosts a wide array of species. Organic matter provides nutrition for living organisms and varies in quantity between different soils with the strength of the soil structure decreasing when more is present. It condenses and settles over time in different ways depending upon conditions such as beneath roadbeds and foundations vs uncovered and exposed to

2208-567: The strata are indicated by preceding figures, starting with the second stratum. I and W layers are not considered as strata. All layers of the respective stratum are indicated by the figure: Example: Oi-Oe-Ah-E-2Bt-2C-3R. If two or more layers with the same designation occur, the letters are followed by figures. The sequence of figures continues across different strata. Examples: Oi-Oe-Oa-Ah-Bw1-Bw2-2Bw3-3Ahb1-3Eb-3Btb-4Ahb2-4C, Oi-He-Ha-Cr1-2Heb-2Hab-2Cr2-3Crγ. Source: H horizons or layers : These are layers of organic material. Organic material

2256-431: The suffix that indicates the substance that forms the concretions or nodules; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the c. 2. The m follows the suffix that indicates the substance that is the cementing agent; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the m. 3. The ρ follows the suffix that indicates the relict features; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one

2304-555: The whole soil); not resulting from the cementation of a soil horizon. I: ≥ 75% ice (by volume, related to the whole soil), permanent, below an H, O, A, E, B or C layer. W: Permanent water above the soil surface or between layers, may be seasonally frozen. This is the list of suffixes to the master symbols. In brackets is indicated to which master symbols the suffixes can be added. The suffixes e and i have different meanings for organic and mineral layers. I and W layers have no suffixes. Combination of suffixes: 1. The c follows

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