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53-714: Researchers suggest that the basic meaning of the word dís is "goddess". It usually is said to be derived from the Indo-European root * dhēi- , "to suck, suckle" and a form dhīśana . Scholars have associated the Dísir with the West Germanic Idisi , seeing the initial i- as having been lost early in Old or Proto-Norse . Jacob Grimm points out that dís Skjöldunga in the Eddic Helgakviða Hundingsbana II (v. 52)

106-565: A "dignified, well respected woman (married or unmarried), possibly a term for any woman, and therefore glosses exactly Latin matrona " and that a link to the North Germanic term dísir is reasonable to assume, yet that it is not undisputed. In addition, the place name Idisiaviso (meaning "plain of the Idisi") where forces commanded by Arminius fought those commanded by Germanicus at the Battle of

159-464: A couple of Eddic and skaldic poems , and in various kennings the generic dísir appears instead of the more specific labels norns , fylgjas , and valkyries . The eddic poem Hamðismál deals with how Hamðir and Sörli go to the Gothic king Ermanaric to exact vengeance for the cruel death of their half-sister Svanhild . On the way, they kill their reluctant brother Erpr. Later, knowing that he

212-441: A historical source, though with more caution. It is not common to believe in the detailed accuracy of the historical narrative and historians tend to see little to no historical truth behind the first few sagas, however, they are still seen by many as a valuable source of knowledge about the society and politics of medieval Norway. The factual content of the work tends to be deemed more credible where it discusses more recent times, as

265-598: A kind of valkyrie, as these also have the power to hamper enemies in Norse mythology" and points to a connection with the valkyrie name Herfjötur (Old Norse "army-fetter"). Hilda Ellis Davidson compares the incantation to the Old English Wið færstice charm, and theorizes a similar role for them both. Simek says that the West Germanic term Idisi (Old Saxon idis , Old High German itis , Anglo-Saxon ides ) refers to

318-574: A mythological model for human behavior. In western Scandinavia, dísablót appears to have been a private observance. Even the large gathering in Víga-Glúms saga was for family and friends. In contrast, according to the Saga of St. Olaf in Heimskringla , at Gamla Uppsala the dísablót was celebrated during the month of Gói, i.e. in late February or early March, and accompanied by a popular assembly known as

371-441: A name for Skaði . He notes that in both cases the compound using dís immediately follows one using goð , 'deity': Vanagoð , öndurgoð . Lotte Motz suggested that dís was the original Old Norse word for 'goddess' and that it had been replaced later by ásynja , which is simply the feminine of áss . In many texts, the dísir are equated to or seem to play the same role as other female figures. In Þiðranda þáttr ok Þórhalls ,

424-574: A rock, perhaps suggesting a ritual killing. It also appears in Hervarar saga where Helga becomes so infuriated over the death of her father at the hands of Heiðrekr , her husband, that she hangs herself in the shrine. Although Snorri Sturluson does not mention the dísir in the Prose Edda , he does list Vanadís —'dís of the Vanir '— as a name for Freyja , and öndurdís —'snow-shoe dís'—as

477-514: A text called Jarlasǫgurnar ('sagas of the jarls', which seems to correspond to the saga now known as Orkneyinga saga ). The author may have had access to a wide range of the early Scandinavian historical texts known today as the 'synoptic histories', but made most use of: The author also made extensive use of skaldic verse which he believed to have been composed at the time of the events portrayed and transmitted orally from that time onwards, and clearly made use of other oral accounts, though it

530-483: Is about to die at the hands of the Goths, Sörli talks of the cruelty of the dísir who incited him to kill Erpr, because he would have cut off the head of Ermanaric and made their expedition successful. In this poem, dísir appears as a synonym of norns and the translator Henry Adams Bellows simply translates dísir as norns : In Grímnismál , the wise Grímnir (Odin) predicts king Geirröðr's death, which he attributes to

583-481: Is difficult to conclusively construct a clear pre-Christian mythology without conjecture. However, the Germanic languages appear to have had a northward, rather than southward, progression from the initial contact with the speakers of Indo-European languages near Denmark or Jutland. H. Davidson notes a similar northward progression of mythology where elements of Proto-Germanic concepts have metamorphosed or been combined by

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636-646: Is exactly parallel to ides Scildinga "Scylding queen" in Beowulf (l. 1168). He also suggests that Iðunn may be a reflex of the original form of the word. However, except for the First Merseburg Charm , in which they work battle-magic, idis only occurs with the meaning "lady", sometimes "maiden." The words are not presumed to be directly related by some scholars, although the resemblance evidently led to influence on Old Norse poetic use. Other scholars group all female deities and spirits associated with battle under

689-520: Is summarized as follows by Anthony Faulkes : The title Heimskringla comes from the first words of the first saga in the compilation ( Ynglinga saga ), Kringla heimsins , "the orb of the Earth". The earliest parchment copy of the work is Kringla , now in the National and University Library of Iceland , catalogued as Lbs fragm 82. It is a single vellum leaf from c. 1260, a part of the Saga of St. Olaf ;

742-465: Is synonymous with valkyrie is the skaldic poem Krákumál – composed by Ragnarr Loðbrók while awaiting his death in a snake pit. It features the line: Heim bjóða mér dísir (the dísir invite me home), as one of several poetic circumscriptions for what awaits him. One source seems to describe the Dísir as the ghosts or spirits of dead women. In Atlamál , believed to have been written in Greenland in

795-479: Is uncertain to what extent. Up until the mid-19th century, historians put great trust in the factual truth of Snorri's narrative, as well as other old Norse sagas. In the early 20th century, this trust was largely abandoned with the advent of saga criticism , pioneered by the Swedish historians Lauritz and Curt Weibull . These historians pointed out that Snorri's work had been written several centuries after most of

848-411: The Heimskringla . According to Víga-Glúms saga it was held at Winter Nights (at the onset of winter). In Hervarar saga , the dísablót is also held in autumn, and is performed by a woman, the daughter of King Álfr of Álfheim, who "reddens the hörgr with sacrifices and is subsequently rescued by the god Thor after she has been abducted. John Lindow suggests that, on its face the text depicts

901-630: The Thing of all Swedes or Dísaþing and a yearly fair. When Christianity arrived, the assembly and market were moved to a Christian feast at the beginning of February: At the time when heathendom still prevailed in Sweden, it was an old custom there that the main sacrifices were held in Uppsala in the month of Gói... Sacrifices were to be made at that time for peace and victory for the king, and people from all over Sweden were to resort there. At that place and time also

954-642: The Black . A version of Óláfs saga helga , about the saint Olaf II of Norway , is the main and central part of the collection: Olaf's 15-year-long reign takes up about one third of the entire work. Thereafter, the saga of Harald Hardrada narrates Harald's expedition to the East, his brilliant exploits in Constantinople , Syria , and Sicily , his skaldic accomplishments, and his battles in England against Harold Godwinson ,

1007-605: The Center of the Earth by Jules Verne ; the work is the one Professor Liedenbrock finds Arne Saknussem's note in. By the mid-16th century, the Old Norse language was unintelligible to Norwegian, Swedish or Danish readers. At that time several translations of extracts were made in Norway into the Danish language, which was the literary language of Norway at the time. The first complete translation

1060-612: The Crusader , where the Norwegian fleet is attacked by Arab Muslim pirates, referred to as Vikings. The stories are told with energy, giving a picture of human life in all its dimensions. The saga is a prose epic, relevant to the history of not only Scandinavia but the regions included in the wider medieval Scandinavian diaspora . The first part of the Heimskringla is rooted in Norse mythology ; as

1113-581: The Eddic sources might lead us to conclude that the disir were valkyrie-like guardians of the dead, and indeed in Guðrúnarkviða I 19 the valkyries are even called Herjans disir 'Odin's disir'. The disir are explicitly called dead women in Atlamál 28 and a secondary belief that the disir were the souls of dead women (see fylgjur ) also underlies the landdísir of Icelandic folklore ." Simek says that "as

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1166-605: The Swedes is there. The name Dísaþing (now Disting ) remained in use, however, and the Fair is still held every year in Uppsala on the first Tuesday in February. It may be one of the oldest in Sweden. The stated purpose of the dísablót at Uppsala is to sacrifice for peace and victory. Norwegian places called Disin , from Old Norse Dísavin , "meadow of the dísir", and the possible relationship of

1219-483: The Weser River in 16 CE. Simek points to a connection between name Idisiaviso, the role of the Idisi in one of the two Merseburg Incantations, and valkyries . Regarding the dísir, Simek states that Old Norse dís appears commonly as simply a term for 'woman,' just as Old High German itis , Old Saxon idis , and Anglo-Saxon ides , and may have also been used to denote a type of goddess. According to Simek, "several of

1272-457: The basis for Icelandic writing about Scandinavian kings, and was expanded by scribes rather than entirely revised. Flateyjarbók , from the end of the fourteenth century, is the most extreme example of expansion, interweaving Heimskringla text with many þættir and other whole sagas, prominently Orkneyinga saga , Færeyinga saga , and Fóstbrœðra saga . The text is also referenced in Journey to

1325-576: The belief in the dísir , like the belief in the valkyries, norns, and matrons, may be considered to be different manifestations of a belief in a number of female (half-?) goddesses." There is considerable evidence that the dísir were worshipped in Scandinavia in pagan times. Firstly, a sacrificial festival ( blót ) honouring them, the dísablót , is mentioned in one version of Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks konungs and in Víga-Glúms saga , Egils saga , and

1378-460: The case of Freyja , whose name means "lady" ( frawjō ) and who is called Vanadís ("lady of the vanir "). Adding to the ambiguous meaning of dís is the fact that just as supernatural women were called dísir in the sense "ladies", mortal women were frequently called by names for supernatural women, as noted by Snorri Sturluson in Skáldskaparmál : Woman is also metaphorically called by

1431-513: The class of idis, dis, valkyrie, and other names, such as sigewif (victory-women, associated by the Anglo-Saxons with a swarm of bees), and find the commonalities both linguistically and in surviving myths and magic charms sufficient cause to group together all variations on this theme from various Germanic cultures. Stories from these and other cultures survive from earlier dates than the Eddas and it

1484-561: The collection proceeds, fable and fact intermingle, but the accounts become increasingly historically reliable. The first saga tells of the mythological prehistory of the Swedish and Norwegian royal dynasty, the Ynglings , tracing their lineage to Freyr (Yngve) of the Vanaland people, who arrived in Scandinavia with Odin from the legendary Asgard . The subsequent sagas are (with few exceptions) devoted to individual rulers, starting with Halfdan

1537-460: The court of King Eysteinn of Denmark, saying he believes "our dísir" have come with him, armed, to Denmark. Úlfr replies that he thinks all the dísir of Útsteinn and his men are dead and their luck run out. In Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , when the hero Helgi Hundingsbane first meets the valkyrie Sigrún , the poet calls her a "dís of the south". Henry Adams Bellows rendered this simply "the southern maid". The dísir are also equated with or play

1590-464: The dead, and, indeed, in Guðrúnarkviða I 19 the valkyries are even called Herjans disir 'Odin's disir'. The disir are explicitly called dead women in Atlamál 28. A secondary belief that the disir were the souls of dead women (see fylgjur ) also underlies the landdísir of Icelandic folklore ." Simek says that "as the function of the matrons was also extremely varied – fertility goddess, personal guardians, but also warrior-goddesses –

1643-542: The death of the pretender Eystein Meyla in 1177. Some of the exact sources of Heimskringla are disputed, but they include earlier kings' sagas, such as Morkinskinna , Fagrskinna and the 12th-century Norwegian synoptic histories and oral traditions, notably many skaldic poems. The author or authors explicitly name the now lost work Hryggjarstykki as their source for the events of the mid-12th century. No known manuscript attributes authorship to Heimskringla . The matter

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1696-414: The distance in time between the events described and the composition of the saga was shorter, allowing traditions to be retained in a largely accurate form, and because in the twelfth century the first contemporary written sources begin to emerge in Norway. Whereas prior to Heimskringla there seems to have been a diversity of efforts to write histories of kings, Heimskringla seems thereafter to have been

1749-471: The events it describes. In Norway, the historian Edvard Bull famously proclaimed that "we have to give up all illusions that Snorri's mighty epic bears any deeper resemblance to what actually happened" in the time it describes. A school of historians has come to believe that the motives Snorri and the other saga writers give to their characters owe more to conditions in the 13th century than in earlier times. Heimskringla has, however, continued to be used as

1802-430: The function of the matrons was also extremely varied – fertility goddess, personal guardians, but also warrior-goddesses – the belief in the dísir , like the belief in the valkyries, norns, and matrons, may be considered to be different manifestations of a belief in a number of female goddesses." Jacob Grimm proposes a potential connection to the name of the Norse goddess Iðunn and the idisi. Grimm states that "with

1855-449: The hall, not poorly decked out. They wished to choose you, would've invited you quickly to their benches; I declare of no value these dísir to you." Idis (Germanic) In Germanic mythology , an idis ( Old Saxon , plural idisi ) is a divine female being. Idis is cognate to Old High German itis and Old English ides , meaning 'well-respected and dignified woman.' Connections have been assumed or theorized between

1908-524: The idisi and the North Germanic dísir ; female beings associated with fate, as well as the amended place name Idistaviso . One of the two Old High German Merseburg Incantations call upon female beings— idisi —to bind and hamper an army. The incantation reads: In the Old English poem Beowulf , the term ides is used multiple times to describe female beings. In line 1074 and again in line 1117,

1961-689: The names of the Ásynjur or the Valkyrs or Norns or women of supernatural kind. The name dís appears in several place names in Norway and Sweden. Moreover, it was a common element in the names of girls, as evidenced on runestones , and it still is in Iceland . The word appears as a first element in Old High German female given names such as Itispuruc and Itislant. More frequent are Old Norse given names such as Thórdís, Hjördís, Ásdís, Vigdís, Halldís, Freydís. In

2014-577: The original form idis the goddess Idunn may possibly be connected." Heimskringla Heimskringla ( Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈheimsˌkʰriŋla] ) is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas . It was written in Old Norse in Iceland . While authorship of Heimskringla is nowhere attributed, some scholars assume it is written by the Icelandic poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (1178/79–1241) c. 1230. The title Heimskringla

2067-607: The queen Hildeburh is described as an ides while mourning the death of her kin after the Battle of Finnsburg . In line 620, Hrothgar 's wife, Wealhtheow is described as the " ides of the Helmings " and again in line 1168 as the " ides of the Scyldings ". In line 1259, the mother of the thurs Grendel is introduced as an ides . The idisi mentioned in the first Merseburg Incantation are generally considered to be valkyries. Rudolf Simek says that "these Idisi are obviously

2120-403: The rest of the manuscript was lost to fire in 1728. Heimskringla consists of several sagas, often thought of as falling into three groups, giving the overall work the character of a triptych . The saga narrates the contests of the kings, the establishment of the kingdom of Norway, Norse expeditions to various European countries, ranging as far afield as Palestine in the saga of Sigurd

2173-419: The role of norns. They give an impression of great age, but by the time of the oldest surviving texts, their significance had become blurred and the word had lost almost all distinct meaning. Accordingly, some scholars have argued that dísir may be the original term for the valkyries (lit. "choosers of the slain"), which in turn would be a kenning for dís . Unlike the mentions of the valkyrja and norn ,

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2226-583: The son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex , where he fell at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, only a few days before Harold fell at the Battle of Hastings . After presenting a series of other kings, the saga ends with Magnus V of Norway . Heimskringla contains the following sagas (see also List of Norwegian monarchs ): Heimskringla explicitly mentions a few prose sources, now mostly lost in then-contemporary forms: Hryggjarstykki ('spine pieces') by Eiríkr Oddsson (covering events 1130–61), Skjǫldunga saga , an unidentified saga about Knútr inn gamli, and

2279-549: The term dís never appears in the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson . As stated above, dís has been regarded as cognate with Old High German itis , Old Saxon idis and the Anglo-Saxon ides , all meaning "lady",; and idisi appears as the name of the valkyries in the only surviving pagan source from Germany, the Merseburg Incantations (see below). Dís also had the meaning "lady" in Old Norse poetry , as in

2332-408: The text in Old Norse. A new Danish translation with the text in Old Norse and a Latin translation came out in 1777–83 (by order of Frederick VI as crown prince). An English translation by Samuel Laing was finally published in 1844, with a second edition in 1889. Starting in the 1960s English-language revisions of Laing appeared, as well as fresh English translations. In the 19th century, as Norway

2385-412: The time of the initial recording of the Icelandic sagas. According to Rudolf Simek , Old Norse dís appears commonly as simply a term for 'woman', just as Old High German itis , Old Saxon idis , and Anglo-Saxon ides . It also may have been used to denote a type of goddess. According to Simek, "several of the Eddic sources might lead us to conclude that the disir were valkyrie-like guardians of

2438-440: The twelfth century, the character Glaumvör warns her husband Gunnar that she had a dream about the Dísir. Some of the surrounding text has been lost and it is not known what Gunnar may have said prior to this, and there is disagreement on which stanza number this should be given. A possible translation of the material is given as follows by John Lindow in his 2001 book Norse Mythology : "I thought dead women came hither into

2491-523: The word to the Indian dhīsanas have suggested to some scholars that the dísir were fertility deities. There are two mentions of a hall or temple of a dís. Hollander translates dísarsálr as "the hall of the goddess". In the Ynglinga saga part of Heimskringla , Aðils , the king of Sweden , dies when he rides one of his horses around the dísarsálr at the time of Dísablót and he is thrown and brains himself on

2544-419: The wrath of the dísir. Again, dísir is used as a synonym for the norns: In Reginsmál , the unmarried Lyngheiðr is called dís ulfhuguð (dís/lady with the soul of a wolf) as an insult. Later in the same poem, there is a stanza, where the dísir appear as female spirits accompanying a warrior in order to see him dead in battle, a role where they are synonymous with valkyries: An additional instance where dís

2597-642: The youth Þiðrandi is killed by dísir dressed in black, riding black horses, while a troop of dísir dressed in white and riding white horses are unable to save him. The two groups represent the struggle between heathenry and Christianity. The benevolent dísir here play the role of tutelary spirits associated with a family, and Thorhall the Prophet explains them as fylgjur . The dísir are also referred to as if they are, or include, protective fylgjur in an exchange of verses in Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka . Útsteinn quarrels with Úlfr at

2650-551: Was achieving independence after centuries of union with Denmark and Sweden, the stories of the independent Norwegian medieval kingdom won great popularity in Norway. Heimskringla , although written by an Icelander, became an important national symbol for Norway during the period of romantic nationalism . In 1900, the Norwegian parliament, the Storting , subsidized the publication of new translations of Heimskringla into both Norwegian written forms, landsmål and riksmål , "in order that

2703-405: Was first used in the 17th century, derived from the first two words of one of the manuscripts ( kringla heimsins , "the circle of the world"). Heimskringla is a collection of sagas about Swedish and Norwegian kings , beginning with the saga of the legendary Swedish dynasty of the Ynglings , followed by accounts of historical Norwegian rulers from Harald Fairhair of the 9th century up to

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2756-464: Was made around 1600 by Peder Claussøn Friis , and printed in 1633. This was based on a manuscript known as Jofraskinna . Subsequently, the Stockholm manuscript was translated into Swedish and Latin by Johan Peringskiöld (by order of Charles XI ) and published in 1697 at Stockholm under the title Heimskringla , which is the first known use of the name. This edition also included the first printing of

2809-408: Was to be the assembly of all Swedes, and there was also a market and a fair which lasted a week. Now when Christianity was introduced, the general assembly and the market were still held there. But at present, when Christianity is general in Sweden and the kings have ceased residing at Uppsala, the market has been shifted to meet at Candlemas ... but now it lasts only three days. The general assembly of

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