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60-626: The Dutch Maiden has been used as a national symbol since the 16th century. During the Dutch Revolt , a maiden representing the United Provinces of the Netherlands became a recurrent theme in allegorical cartoons . In early depictions she may be shown in the " Garden of Holland ", a small garden surrounded by a fence, recalling the medieval hortus conclusus of the Virgin Mary . On 25 May 1694,

120-535: A theological quarrel resulted in riots between Remonstrants ( Arminians ) and Counter-Remonstrants (Gomarists). In general, regents would support the former and civilians the latter. Even the government got involved, with Oldenbarnevelt taking the side of the Remonstrants and stadtholder Maurice of Nassau their opponents. In the end, the Synod of Dort condemned the Remonstrants for heresy and excommunicated them from

180-536: A lightning campaign to retake all towns occupied by Orangist and Geuzen troops in October 1572. Several towns (including Mechelen , Zutphen and Naarden ) which refused to surrender were brutally sacked by Fadrique's forces in an attempt to intimidate others into resubmitting themselves to the royal government, culminating in the seven-month-long Siege of Haarlem before it was conquered and sacked in July 1573. By this point,

240-576: A number of 19th century monuments, including: Starting around the time of the Renaissance , it was not uncommon for a Dutch province to be symbolized by the image of a maiden, e.g. "the Maiden of Holland". A "town maiden" ( stedenmaagd ) was sometimes used to symbolize a Dutch town, e.g. "the Maiden of Dordrecht". On a relief on the 16th century Groothoofdspoort in Dordrecht , the Maiden of Dordrecht, holding

300-583: A source of disputes amongst historians for centuries . The Habsburg Netherlands emerged as a result of the territorial expansion of the Burgundian State in the 14th and 15th centuries. Upon extinction of the Burgundian State in 1477/1482, these lands were inherited by the House of Habsburg , whose Charles V became both King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor . By conquering the rest of what would become

360-669: A stalemate , the two sides agreed to a Twelve Years' Truce in 1609; when it expired in 1621, fighting resumed as part of the broader Thirty Years' War . An end was reached in 1648 with the Peace of Münster (a treaty that was part of the Peace of Westphalia ), when Spain retained the Southern Netherlands and recognised the Dutch Republic as an independent country. The origins of the Eighty Years' War are complicated, and have been

420-681: The 1576–1579 period , in which a temporary alliance of 16 out of the Seventeen Provinces ' States–General established the Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576) as a joint Catholic–Protestant rebellion against the Spanish government, but internal conflicts as well as military and diplomatic successes of the Spanish Governors-General Don Juan of Austria and Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma split them apart, finally leading

480-588: The Burgundian Circle , whereafter the territories in the far west of the Empire developed a certain grade of autonomy. Through his mother Joanna, who had a mental breakdown following the death of her husband, he was heir to the Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon and Spain's overseas empire in the New World. Attaining full age in 1515, Charles went on to rule his Burgundian heritage as a native Netherlander. He acquired

540-559: The Malcontent County of Artois , County of Hainaut and city of Douai to sign the Union of Arras on 6 January 1579, reverting to Catholicism and loyalty to the Spanish crown. In response, most of the remaining rebel provinces and cities would forge or later accede to the Union of Utrecht, a closer military alliance treaty that would go on to become the most important fundamental law of

600-746: The Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576) was an early stage of the Eighty Years' War ( c.  1568 –1648) between the Spanish Empire and groups of rebels in the Habsburg Netherlands . After Watergeuzen (in English known as "Sea Beggars") seized several poorly defended towns and cities in Holland and Zeeland in April 1572, the exiled stadtholder William "the Silent" of Orange launched his second invasion of

660-458: The Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576), and the Unions of Arras (6 January 1579) and Utrecht (23 January 1579) constituted a crucial phase of the Eighty Years' War ( c.  1568 –1648) between the Spanish Empire and the rebelling United Provinces, which would become the independent Dutch Republic . Sometimes known as the "general revolt", the period marked the only time of the war where

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720-631: The Peace of Münster in 1648. Although the Dutch and Spanish were both involved in opposite sides of the War of the Jülich Succession (June 1609 – October 1610; May–October 1614) in Jülich-Cleves-Berg , they carefully avoided each other, and thus the hostilities never spread back into the Habsburg Netherlands , and the truce held firm. Nevertheless, attempts to negotiate a definitive peace also failed, and

780-654: The Spanish Crown (which included also south Italy and the American possessions). King Philip II of Spain became infamous for his despotism , and Catholic persecutions sparked the Dutch Revolt and the subsequent Eighty Years' War . The Spanish hold on the northern provinces was more and more tenuous. In 1579 the northern provinces established the Protestant Union of Utrecht , in which they declared themselves independent as

840-715: The Spanish conquered Breda in 1625 , but the Dutch took it back in 1637 – the Dutch Republic was able to conquer the eastern border forts of Oldenzaal (1626) and Groenlo (1627) , the major Brabantian city of 's-Hertogenbosch (1629) , the fortified cities of Venlo, Roermond and Maastricht along the Meuse (1632) , and Sas van Gent (1644) and Hulst (1645) in Zeelandic Flanders . Nevertheless, peace talks in 1629–1630 came to nothing. More ambitious plans to conquer Brussels in 1632–1633 with

900-560: The States of Holland and West Friesland introduced a uniform coin design for the United Provinces, showing a Dutch Maiden leaning on a bible placed on an altar and holding a lance with the cap of liberty , the Liberty pole . Initially carrying a martyr's palm , by the late 17th century she often carries a cap of liberty on a liberty pole , though the hat is a conventional male style for

960-625: The States–General of all Seventeen Provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands, except Luxemburg , were in joint active political and military rebellion against the Spanish Imperial government through the Pacification of Ghent . The Pacification formulated several agreements amongst the rebellious provinces themselves, and laid down their demands – including the immediate withdrawal of foreign (mostly Spanish, Italian and German) troops from

1020-700: The peace of the Pyrenees of 1659. The peace was celebrated in the Republic with sumptuous festivities. It was solemnly promulgated on the 80th anniversary of the execution of the Counts of Egmont and Horne on 5 June 1648. The Eighty Years' War has given rise to more historical controversies than any other topic from the history of the Nederlanden [Low Countries] whatsoever. – Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins (2002) Habsburg Netherlands Habsburg Netherlands

1080-738: The " Seventeen Provinces " during the Guelders Wars (1502–1543), and seeking to combine these disparate regions into a single political entity, Charles aspired to counter the Protestant Reformation and keep all his subjects obedient to the Catholic Church . The period between the start of the Beeldenstorm in August 1566 until early 1572 (before the Capture of Brielle on 1 April 1572) contained

1140-589: The Catholic religion in their provinces. By signing the Edict of 1577 on 12 February 1577 at Marche-en-Famenne , Don Juan nominally accepted all demands of the Pacification. Most foreign troops withdrew to the territory of Luxemburg, which had not joined the Pacification. Although a few sieges of cities with Spanish garrisons that refused to withdraw took place, these were mostly resolved quickly by paying them off; in general,

1200-712: The Duke of Parma 's steady military and diplomatic successes , the Union of Utrecht continued their resistance, proclaiming their independence through the 1581 Act of Abjuration and establishing the Calvinist -dominated Dutch Republic in 1588. In the Ten Years thereafter, the Republic (whose heartland was no longer threatened) made conquests in the north and east and received diplomatic recognition from France and England in 1596. The Dutch colonial empire emerged, which began with Dutch attacks on Portugal's overseas territories . Facing

1260-453: The Duke of Parma continued his successful military and diplomatic offensive, bringing ever more provinces and cities in the southern, eastern and northeastern parts of the Netherlands back into royalist hands. The military upkeep and decreased trade had put both Spain and the Dutch Republic under financial strain. To alleviate conditions, a ceasefire was signed in Antwerp on 9 April 1609, marking

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1320-610: The Dutch Maiden as its main symbol. The symbol was depicted on the upper left corner of the Batavian Republic's flag, with a lion at her feet. In one hand, she holds a shield with the Roman fasces and in the other a lance crowned with the cap of liberty. The Dutch Maiden continued to be used as a symbol after the foundation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. She was integrated into

1380-766: The Dutch when French and Dutch troops sacked the city of Tienen , which cost them the sympathies of the southern Netherlands population. However, French intervention and internal discontent at the costs of the war in the Low Countries led to a change in Spain's 'Netherlands First' policy. Instead Spain focused on suppressing the French-backed Reapers' War in Catalonia. The resulting stalemate and financial troubles, plus Spanish military exhaustion and Dutch desire for formal political recognition, eventually convinced both sides in

1440-530: The Holy Roman Empire of 14 and 24 October 1648, which comprise the Peace of Westphalia , but which were not signed by the Republic, the Republic now also gained formal "independence" from the Holy Roman Empire, just like the Swiss Cantons. In both cases this was just a formalisation of a situation that had already existed for a long time. France and Spain did not conclude a treaty and so remained at war until

1500-457: The Indies and Americas, and lifting of the Spanish embargoes) were generally met. However, the general negotiations between the main parties dragged on, because France kept formulating new demands. Eventually it was decided therefore to split off the peace between the Republic and Spain from the general peace negotiations. This enabled the two parties to conclude what technically was a separate peace (to

1560-635: The Netherlands from the east in another attempt to generate a general uprising against the repressive regime of Spanish General-Governor Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba . Acting on orders of Philip II of Spain , Alba sought to exterminate all manifestations of Protestantism and disobedience through inquisition and public executions, as well as abolishing several privileges of the Netherlandish nobility and autonomy of cities, and introducing more stringent taxes. William's second invasion in 1572 had mixed results, and Alba's son Don Fadrique went on

1620-582: The Netherlands, restitution of old rights and privileges, and self-rule – to king Philip II of Spain . From 8 November 1576 until 23 July 1577, the new Spanish Governor-General of the Netherlands John of Austria (known to history as "Don Juan") engaged in peace negotiations with the States-General. The First Union of Brussels (9 January 1577) confirmed the Pacification, adding that the States would uphold

1680-700: The Seven United Provinces by the 1581 Act of Abjuration . After the secession of 1581, the southern provinces, called "'t Hof van Brabant" (of Flandria, Artois, the Tournaisis , Cambrai , Luxembourg, Limburg, Hainaut, Namur, Mechelen, Brabant, and Upper Guelders ) remained with the House of Habsburg until the French Revolutionary Wars . After the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg line in 1700 with

1740-544: The Seventeen Provinces as an entity held by a single prince. Following a series of abdications between 1555 and 1556, Charles V divided the House of Habsburg into an Austrian-German and a Spanish branch. His brother Ferdinand I became suo jure monarch in Austria, Bohemia and Hungary, as well as the new Holy Roman Emperor . Philip II of Spain , Charles' son, inherited the Seventeen Provinces and incorporated them into

1800-702: The Spanish branch of the Habsburgs from 1556, known as the Spanish Netherlands from that time on. In 1581, in the midst of the Dutch Revolt , the Seven United Provinces seceded from the rest of this territory to form the Dutch Republic . The remaining Spanish Southern Netherlands became the Austrian Netherlands in 1714, after Austrian acquisition under the Treaty of Rastatt . De facto Habsburg rule ended with

1860-410: The Spanish royal government under certain conditions. In response, the States-General's Second Union of Brussels (10 December 1577) showed a more fierce and determined opposition to the Spanish government, now demanding (and themselves guaranteeing) equal protection for Catholics and Protestants in all provinces of the Netherlands. William "the Silent" of Orange became the de facto political leader of

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1920-531: The United Provinces, who on 26 July 1581 proclaimed the Act of Abjuration , a de facto declaration of independence from Spain. While the nascent polity was struggling to find a new sovereign head of state, including Matthias of Austria , Francis of Anjou , William "the Silent" of Orange and Robert of Leicester , before giving up and deciding to become a republic by passing the Deduction of Vrancken on 12 April 1588,

1980-427: The United Provinces, while Matthias of Austria was brought in to replace Don Juan as Governor-General. The years 1579–1588 constituted a phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the United Provinces in revolt after most of them concluded the Union of Utrecht on 23 January 1579, and proceeded to carve the independent Dutch Republic out of the Habsburg Netherlands . It followed

2040-780: The Valois-Burgundy monarchs and represented in the States-General assembly. The centre of the Burgundian possessions was the Duchy of Brabant, where the Burgundian dukes held court in Brussels . Philip's son Duke Charles the Bold (1467–1477) also acquired Guelders and Zutphen , and even hoped to gain the title of "King" from Habsburg emperor Frederick III by marrying his daughter Mary to Frederick's son Maximilian. Disappointed in this, he engaged in

2100-402: The affront to its prestige was immense. The closure of the river Scheldt to traffic in and out of Antwerp, and the acceptance of Dutch commercial operations in the Spanish and Portuguese colonial maritime lanes were just a few points that the Spanish found objectionable. Although there was peace on an international level, political unrest took hold of Dutch domestic affairs. What had started as

2160-485: The annexation by the revolutionary French First Republic in 1795. Austria, however, did not relinquish its claim over the country until 1797 in the Treaty of Campo Formio. The Habsburg Netherlands was a geo-political entity covering the whole of the Low Countries (i.e. the present-day Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg , and most of the modern French départements of Nord and Pas-de-Calais ) from 1482 to 1581. The northern Low Countries began growing from 1200 CE, with

2220-448: The annoyance of France, which maintained that this contravened the alliance treaty of 1635 with the Republic). The text of the Treaty (in 79 articles) was fixed on 30 January 1648. It was then sent to the principals (King Philip IV of Spain and the States General) for ratification. Five provinces voted to ratify (against the advice of stadtholder William) on 4 April (Zeeland and Utrecht being opposed). Utrecht finally yielded to pressure by

2280-427: The death of the childless Charles II and the War of the Spanish Succession (1700–14), the southern provinces were also known as the Austrian Netherlands from 1715 onwards. The provinces were ruled on their behalf by a governor ( stadtholder or landvoogd ): During the Spanish period it is assumed that the flag was the Cross of Burgundy . After a period of turmoil with the Eighty Years' War , by 1713

2340-419: The disastrous Burgundian Wars and was killed in the Battle of Nancy . Upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482, her substantial possessions including the Burgundian Netherlands passed to her son, Philip the Handsome , who married Joanna of Castile , daughter of Isabel I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon . Through his father Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor , Philip was a Habsburg scion , and so

2400-428: The drainage and flood control of land, which could then be cultivated. The population rose and the region of Holland became important. Before that, the development of large cities was in the south, with Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, Brussels, and Leuven, all of which were larger than any settlement in the north. Rivers in the Low Countries run east–west and were a political and strategic barrier to influence southern influence on

2460-410: The end of the Dutch Revolt and the beginning of the Twelve Years' Truce . The conclusion of this Truce was a major diplomatic coup for Holland's advocate Johan van Oldenbarnevelt , as Spain by concluding the Treaty, formally recognised the independence of the Republic. In Spain the truce was seen as a major humiliation – she had suffered a political, military and ideological defeat, and

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2520-530: The first events of a series that would later be known as the Eighty Years' War between the Spanish Empire and disparate groups of rebels in the Habsburg Netherlands . Some of the first pitched battles and sieges between radical Calvinists and Habsburg governmental forces took place in the years 1566–1567, followed by the arrival and government takeover by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba (simply known as "Alba" or "Alva") with an army of 10,000 Spanish and Italian soldiers. Next, an ill-fated invasion by

2580-428: The help of anti-Spanish nobility in the Southern Netherlands never came to fruition. Several attempted Northern republican surprises and sieges of Antwerp were parried by the Spanish royal Army of Flanders . Nor did the Franco-Dutch alliance bring significant changes to the situation on the ground. It began with a disastrous Franco-Dutch invasion of the southern Netherlands in 1635. This in fact made matters worse for

2640-415: The heraldic shield of Dordrecht, is seated in the symbolical Garden of Holland. She is surrounded by the heraldic shields of 15 cities. The same theme was the subject of a 1596 gift to the St. Janskerk in Gouda by the Dordrecht city council. From 19 to 23 July 1572, Dordrecht had been the scene of the first independent meeting of the provinces rebelling against Spanish rule. In these symbols of Dordrecht,

2700-892: The heraldic shields are (clockwise from Geertruidenberg , the city shield on the "gate" of the garden) for the following towns: Geertruidenberg, Schoonhoven , Hoorn , Weesp , Leerdam , Naarden , Muiden , Medemblik , Grootebroek , Monnickendam , Enkhuizen , Asperen , Heusden , Schiedam and Vlaardingen . Dutch Revolt Peace of Münster [REDACTED] Spanish Empire European ally: [REDACTED] Portuguese Empire ( c.1580–1640 ) European co-belligerent: [REDACTED] Holy Roman Empire (1629, 1632, 1635) Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe East Indies Western Europe European waters Americas East Indies The Eighty Years' War or Dutch Revolt (Dutch: Nederlandse Opstand ) (c. 1566/1568–1648)

2760-460: The lands of Overijssel and the Bishopric of Utrecht (see Guelders Wars ), purchased Friesland from Duke George of Saxony and regained Groningen and Gelderland . His Seventeen Provinces were re-organised in the Burgundian treaty of 1548 , whereby the Imperial estates represented in the Imperial Diet at Augsburg acknowledged a certain autonomy of the Netherlands. It was followed by the Emperor's Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 , which established

2820-618: The mid-1640s to hold peace talks. The negotiations between Spain and the Republic formally started in January 1646 as part of the more general peace negotiations between the warring parties in the Thirty Years' War. The States General sent eight delegates from several of the provinces as none trusted the others to represent them adequately. They were Willem van Ripperda (Overijssel), Frans van Donia (Friesland), Adriaen Clant tot Stedum (Groningen), Adriaan Pauw and Jan van Mathenesse (Holland), Barthold van Gent (Gelderland), Johan de Knuyt (Zeeland) and Godert van Reede (Utrecht). The Spanish delegation

2880-431: The most powerful nobleman of the Low Countries, the exiled but still-Catholic William "the Silent" of Orange , failed to inspire a general anti-government revolt. Although the war seemed over before it got underway, in the years 1569–1571, Alba's repression grew severe, and opposition against his regime mounted to new heights and became susceptible to rebellion. The period between the Capture of Brielle (1 April 1572) and

2940-456: The national Public Church. Van Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death, together with his ally Gilles van Ledenberg , while two other Remonstrant allies, Rombout Hogerbeets and Hugo Grotius received life imprisonment. The years 1621–1648 constituted the final phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the emerging Dutch Republic . It began when the Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621) expired, and concluded with

3000-540: The north, forming two separate political areas. Already under the Holy Roman Empire rule of the Burgundian duke Philip the Good (1419–1467), the provinces of the Netherlands began to grow together, whereas previously they were split with being either the tributary of the French Kingdom or of Burgundy under the Holy Roman Empire banner. The collected fiefdoms were Flanders , Artois and Mechelen , Namur , Holland , Zeeland and Hainaut , Brabant , Limburg , and Luxembourg . These realms were ruled in personal union by

3060-434: The other provinces, but Zeeland held out and refused to sign. It was eventually decided to ratify the peace without Zeeland's consent. The delegates to the peace conference affirmed the peace on oath on 15 May 1648 (though the delegate of Zeeland refused to attend, and the delegate of Utrecht suffered a possibly diplomatic illness). In the broader context of the treaties between France and the Holy Roman Empire, and Sweden and

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3120-418: The period of the Habsburg Netherlands began. The period 1481–1492 saw the Flemish cities revolt and Utrecht embroiled in civil war , but by the turn of the century both areas had been pacified by the Habsburg rulers. Philip's son Charles , born in Ghent , succeeded his father as Duke in 1506, when he was six years old. His paternal grandfather, Emperor Maximilian I, incorporated the Burgundian heritage into

3180-418: The period, rather than the Phrygian cap that later images of liberty personified in other countries used. Alongside the type of depiction with a liberty pole, which is usually costumed in more or less modern styles, images in the Baroque classical dress that was more conventional for such personifications are also found. During the French Revolutionary occupation, the short-lived Batavian Republic adopted

3240-562: The rebel territory had been reduced to most towns in Holland (notably excluding royalist Amsterdam ) and Zeeland, and two towns in Guelders; knowing that violent repression would result from resistance, these cities resolved to fight to the bitter end, while the others capitulated. The Spanish offensive stalled after Haarlem, with the Dutch rebels capturing Geertruidenberg , winning the Siege of Alkmaar and Battle of Delft , and achieving naval superiority. Citing ill health, Alba resigned and returned to Spain in December 1573. The period between

3300-442: The rebel-held territories . However, widespread mutinies in the Spanish army caused a general uprising. Under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent , the Catholic and Protestant-dominated provinces sought to establish religious peace while jointly opposing the king's regime with the Pacification of Ghent , but the general rebellion failed to sustain itself. Despite Governor of Spanish Netherlands and General for Spain,

3360-451: The situation had potential for putting an end to the war if agreements could be reached and respected between the parties. From 24 July 1577 until 6 January 1579, starting with the capture of the Citadel of Namur , Don Juan and his second-in-command and successor Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma launched a military offensive against the United Provinces, while seeking to reconcile provinces that were willing to subject themselves back under

3420-402: The war resumed as anticipated in 1621. Essentially, it became a side theatre of the wider Thirty Years' War that had already broken out with the Bohemian Revolt in 1618 in eastern parts of the Holy Roman Empire (Bohemia and Austria), pitting Central Europe's Protestant Union against the Catholic League , although the two conflicts never fully merged. With several back and forths – notably,

3480-416: Was an armed conflict in the Habsburg Netherlands between disparate groups of rebels and the Spanish government . The causes of the war included the Reformation , centralisation , excessive taxation, and the rights and privileges of the Dutch nobility and cities. After the initial stages , Philip II of Spain , the sovereign of the Netherlands, deployed his armies and regained control over most of

3540-417: Was led by Gaspar de Bracamonte, 3rd Count of Peñaranda . The negotiations were held in what is now the Haus der Niederlande in Münster. The Dutch and Spanish delegations soon reached an agreement, based on the text of the Twelve Years' Truce. It therefore confirmed Spain's recognition of Dutch independence. The Dutch demands (closure of the Scheldt, cession of the Meierij, formal cession of Dutch conquests in

3600-435: Was the Renaissance period fiefs in the Low Countries held by the Holy Roman Empire 's House of Habsburg . The rule began in 1482, when the last Valois-Burgundy ruler of the Netherlands, Mary , wife of Maximilian I of Austria , died. Their grandson, Emperor Charles V , was born in the Habsburg Netherlands and made Brussels one of his capitals. Becoming known as the Seventeen Provinces in 1549, they were held by

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