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74-428: See text Durvillaea is a genus of large brown algae in the monotypic family Durvillaeaceae . All members of the genus are found in the southern hemisphere, including Australia , New Zealand , South America , and various subantarctic islands. Durvillaea , commonly known as southern bull kelps, occur on rocky, wave-exposed shorelines and provide a habitat for numerous intertidal organisms. Many species exhibit

148-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

222-487: A circumpolar distribution between the latitudes of 29°S and 55°S, found in Chile, southern New Zealand, and Macquarie Island. The type locality is Cape Horn, Chile. It is found on exposed shores, especially in the northern parts of its range, and attaches itself with a strong holdfast. Holdfasts of D. antarctica are often inhabited by a diverse array of epifaunal invertebrates, many of which burrow into and graze on

296-512: A genus of intracellular, protistan parasites. Based on genetic evidence, both H. durvillaeae and Maullinia have likely been dispersed across the Southern Hemisphere via rafting bull kelp. Stems and holdfasts of D. antarctica and D. incurvata are harvested from the coast of Chile and is used in Chilean cuisine for various recipes, including salads and stews . In Quechua

370-419: A genus of intracellular, protistan parasites. Based on genetic evidence, both H. durvillaeae and Maullinia have likely been dispersed across the Southern Hemisphere via rafting bull kelp. Increased temperatures and heatwaves, increased sedimentation, and invasive species (such as Undaria pinnatifida ) are sources of physiological stress and disturbance for members of the genus. A marine heatwave in

444-435: A historic uplift event (800 – 1400 years before present) along the fault zone and subsequent recolonisation, has left a lasting impact upon the genetic diversity of the intertidal species D. antarctica and D. poha , but not on the subtidal species D. willana . Such a genetic impact may support the founder takes all hypothesis . Further genetic analysis has revealed that the population structure of two epifaunal species,

518-560: A honeycomb-like structure in the fronds of the kelp that holds air. When these species detach from the seabed, this buoyancy allows for individuals to drift for substantial distances, permitting long distance dispersal . In contrast, species as D. willana lack such 'honeycomb' tissue and are non-buoyant, preventing the individuals from moving long distances. Durvillaea bull kelp grow within intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, typically on rocky wave-exposed coastal sites. D. antarctica and D. poha are intertidal, whereas D. willana

592-501: A honeycomb-like structure in their fronds that provides buoyancy, which allows individuals detached from substrates to raft alive at sea, permitting dispersal for hundreds of days over thousands of kilometres. Durvillaea species have been used for clothing, tools and as a food source by many indigenous cultures throughout the South Pacific, and they continue to play a prominent role in Chilean cuisine . The common name for Durvillaea

666-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

740-841: A leathery texture. The honeycomb structure of the blade gives strength and buoyancy. This novel structure is thought to be responsible for the wide distribution of this genus, as the kelp is able to float when its holdfast fails. It can colonise other coastlines in this manner, and has been shown to carry communities of invertebrates across vast ocean distances from one shore to another. Specimens of D. antarctica have been found to float for up to 210 days, during which time high wind speeds transport kelp rafts up to 10,000 km. Environmental factors such as temperature, solar radiation and surface winds (all of which vary with latitude) affect buoyancy of rafts and their rate of travel. Rafts of D. antarctica are more likely to disperse offshore if plants detach during outgoing tides during autumn and winter. It

814-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

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888-473: A raft and can travel vast distances at sea, driven by ocean currents. Kelp-associated invertebrates can be transported inside of drifting holdfasts, potentially leading to long-distance dispersal and a significant impact upon the population genetic structure of those species. Fronds of D. antarctica can be infected by an endophytic, phaeophycean algal parasite Herpodiscus durvillaeae (Lindauer) G. R. South . Fronds can also be infected Maullinia ,

962-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1036-535: A result of natural disturbance , over a timescale observable to humans (i.e. <200 years). It has been hypothesised that gaps in the current geographic range of D. willana around Wellington and the Wairarapa may have been caused by local extinction following historic earthquake uplift events such as the 1855 Wairarapa earthquake. However, uplift along the Akatore fault zone does not appear to have significantly affected

1110-455: A significant impact upon the population genetic structure of the invertebrate species. Attached male and female individuals can raft together, providing an opportunity for reproduction. Rafts of D. antarctica currently reach Antarctica, although freezing negative impacts the buoyancy and photosynthetic activity of D. antarctica tissue, which may affect the viability and reproductive capability of rafts. Rafts of Durvillaea can be colonised by

1184-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

1258-489: A taxonomic revision led to the recognition of a new species, Durvillaea poha , based on genetic, morphological and ecological evidence, which was previously recognised as the 'cape' lineage of Durvillaea antarctica . D. poha is the only other species in the genus to share the honeycombed structure and buoyancy of D. antarctica. D. poha occurs only in southern New Zealand and on subantarctic islands (including Snares and Auckland Islands ), whereas D. antarctica has

1332-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

1406-504: A unique honeycomb structure within the alga's blades, which also helps the kelp avoid being damaged by the strong waves. The species was first described in 1822, as Fucus antarcticus , and revised in 1892 as Durvillaea antarctica . The genus name Durvillaea was given in memory of the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville , while the Latin derived epithet refers to antarctic . In 2012,

1480-411: A wider distribution, and is found around New Zealand, Chile and other subantarctic islands. In southern New Zealand, D. poha and D. antarctica can be found growing together, although D. poha normally grows higher up or further back on the rock platforms, or in more sheltered bays, where wave force is weaker. D. poha generally has wider fronds than D. antarctica , and can appear more 'orange' across

1554-422: A zone of uplifted rocky coastline at the same location. By combining the above genomic and geological evidence, researchers have hypothesised that a small section of coastline at Rarangi was uplifted by one of four major earthquakes between 6000 and 2000 years ago, which was sufficient in height and sudden enough to extirpate the original population of D. antarctica . Under this hypothesis, the present-day population

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1628-711: Is southern bull kelp , although this is often shortened to bull kelp, which can generate confusion with the North Pacific kelp species Nereocystis luetkeana . The genus is named after French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville (1790-1842). Durvillaea species are dioecious . Based on the concentration of pigments in thalli, males and females of D. antarctica do not significantly differ in colouration. Holdfasts of males and females can be joined together. Durvillaea species are characterised by their prolific growth and plastic morphology. Three species, Durvillaea incurvata , D. antarctica , D. poha are buoyant due to

1702-460: Is also detrimental. Once an area is cleared of Durvillaea following an uplift event, the bull kelp that re-colonises the area can potentially originate from genetically distinct populations far outside the uplift zone, spread via long distance-dispersal. Intertidal species of Durvillaea can be used to estimate earthquake uplift height, with comparable results to traditional methods such as lidar . However, since Durvillaea holdfasts often grow at

1776-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

1850-887: Is not necessarily the ancestral state for the genus, and non-buoyant lineages could have still been transported across the ocean when attached to rafts of different species of buoyant algae. A phylogeny focused on the genus, based on four genes ( COI , rbcL , 28S and 18S ) indicates the evolutionary relationships shown in the cladogram below. Notably, additional unclassified lineages were estimated within D. antarctica . Mitochondrial introgression has been observed between two species, where some individuals with nuclear DNA of D. poha exhibited mitochondrial DNA belonging to D. antarctica . D. willana D. potatorum D. amatheiae D. fenestrata D. incurvata D. poha D. chathamensis D. antarctica (New Zealand north) D. antarctica (New Zealand south) D. antarctica (Subantarctic and Chile) D. potatorum

1924-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

1998-446: Is subtidal (to 6 m depths). Intertidal species can grow at the uppermost limit of the intertidal zone if there is sufficient wave wash. Species can withstand a high level of disturbance from wave action, although storms can remove individuals from substrates. Research on the bacteria associated with Durvillaea indicates that local environmental conditions shape external microbiome diversity significantly. Further research suggests that

2072-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

2146-433: Is thought that this 'rafting' with Durvillaea antarctica and other floating seaweeds allowed a wide range of species to recolonise sub-Antarctic shores scoured clean by ice during the last Ice Age. The holdfast of D. antarctica is large and is very difficult to remove. D. antarctica has to resist forces equivalent to 1100 km/h on land. The holdfast failing is usually the result of worms and molluscs which feed on

2220-548: The 1855 Wairarapa earthquake . The removal of D. antarctica and formation of new coastline by such tectonic disturbance likely provided an ecological opportunity for D. poha to successfully colonise coastline north of the Cook Strait. A genetic study of D. antarctica identified distinct units of population structure across the uplift zone of the 1855 Wairarapa earthquake. Notably, two spatial-genomic sectors of D. antarctica were identified on Turakirae Head , which received

2294-685: The Durvillaea that subsequently reached the affected coastline (i.e. potential colonists) came from areas >1,200 kilometres away. For another study, researchers sampled dying D. antarctica immediately after the earthquake to capture the 'pre-uplift' population genomic diversity and they subsequently sampled new recruits of D. antarctica within the newly formed intertidal zone to estimate 'post-uplift' population structure. Population genomic analysis indicated little change in genetic diversity within four years of recolonisation by D. antarctica . Based on those genomic results, combined with field observations of

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2368-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

2442-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

2516-563: The Kaikōura coastline following the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake , which caused uplift up to 6 metres. The loss of Durvillaea kelp caused ecological disturbance , significantly affecting the biodiversity of the local intertidal community. Aerial drone imaging two years after the earthquake indicated that Durvillaea abundance remained low on reefs with significant uplift, but it revealed offshore refuge populations less frequently detected by field researchers. A genetic analysis indicated that some of

2590-542: The Mapuche indigenous people who refer to it as collofe or kollof . The same species is also called cochayuyo ( cocha : lake, and yuyo : weed), and hulte in Quechua . The kelp harvest, complemented with shellfish gathering, supports artisanal fishing communities in Chile. Exclusive harvest rights are designated using coves or caletas , and the income for fishers (and their unions) often depends upon

2664-410: The goose barnacles Lepas australis and L. pectinata . Beachcast, decomposing bull-kelp is colonised and consumed by a wide variety of invertebrates including sandhoppers Bellorchestia quoyana , and kelp flies Chaetocoelopa littoralis . Other seaweeds including Gelidium lingulatum , G. rex , Corallina officinalis var. chilensis , and Lessonia spicata also grow as epiphytes in

2738-1102: The gribbles Limnoria segnis and L. stephenseni , as well as the molluscs Cantharidus roseus , Onchidella marginata , Onithochiton neglectus , and Sypharochiton sinclairi , and the spider Desis marina . Durvillaea individuals can detach from substrates, particularly during storms. Once detached, buoyant species such as D. antarctica and D. poha can float as rafts, and can travel vast distances at sea, driven by ocean currents. Specimens of D. antarctica have been found to float for up to 210 days, during which time high wind speeds transport kelp rafts up to 10,000 km. Environmental factors such as temperature, solar radiation and surface winds (all of which vary with latitude) affect buoyancy of southern bull kelp rafts and their rate of travel. Rafts of D. antarctica are more likely to disperse offshore if individuals detach during outgoing tides during autumn and winter. Rafts of Kelp-associated invertebrates inside holdfasts and external epiphytes can be transported by rafting individuals, potentially leading to long-distance dispersal and

2812-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

2886-420: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

2960-485: The Kaikōura region is likely to change over coming decades. A genetic study investigated bacteria associated with D. antarctica and found that the 2016 earthquake changed the diversity of the microbiome in disturbed, uplifted populations. Specifically, the analysis showed that disturbed bull kelp populations supported higher functional, taxonomic and phylogenetic microbial beta diversity than non-disturbed populations. It

3034-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

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3108-491: The diversity of bacterial microbiomes associated with D. antarctica is influenced by the density and connectivity of the host kelp populations. Holdfasts of D. antarctica and other species are often inhabited by a diverse array of epifaunal and infaunal invertebrates, many of which burrow into and graze on the kelp. In New Zealand, species that inhabit Durvillaea include the sea-star Anasterias suteri , crustaceans such as Parawaldeckia kidderi , P. karaka , and

3182-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

3256-699: The frond area. Mitochondrial introgression has been observed between the two species, where some plants in Wellington exhibited the nuclear DNA of D. poha but also mitochondrial DNA belonging to D. antarctica . Further diversity, with additional unclassified lineages have been identified within the species. D. willana D. potatorum D. amatheiae D. fenestrata D. incurvata D. poha D. chathamensis D. antarctica (New Zealand north) D. antarctica (New Zealand south) D. antarctica (Subantarctic and Chile) The blades of Durvillaea antarctica are green to golden brown with

3330-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

3404-694: The genetic diversity of D. willana in that region. The interpretation of this genetic result for Akatore was that earthquake uplift is likely insufficient to cause the complete extirpation of subtidal kelp species such as D. willana . There are currently eight recognised species within the genus, and the type species is D. antarctica . All species are restricted to the Southern Hemisphere and many taxa are endemic to particular coastlines or subantarctic islands. Time-calibrated phylogenetic trees using mixtures of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers have estimated that Durvillaea diverged from other brown algae approximately 20 to 60 million years ago. Given

3478-452: The greatest degree of uplift (2 – 6 m). Phylogeographic modelling indicated that bull kelp that survived moderate uplift in the Wellington region (≤2 m) likely recolonised Turakirae Head via two parallel, eastward colonisation events - resulting in the two observed units of population structure. The hierarchical phylogeographic variation observed in the study provided non-experimental evidence of parapatric sectoring (see Founder takes all ) as

3552-440: The gribble L. segnis and the chiton O. neglectus , closely matches the pattern observed in the intertidal host species of Durvillaea along the Akatore fault zone. However, no matching pattern was observed for another epifaunal species, the amphipod P. karaka , most likely because this species has better swimming potential and can rely upon other host seaweeds. A substantial die off of Durvillaea bull kelp occurred along

3626-506: The holdfasts of D. antarctica . Rafting on D. antarctica appears to have influenced the dispersal and phylogeography of these non-buoyant species. In New Zealand, Durvillaea fronds can also be infected by the obligate red algal epiphyte Pyrophyllon subtumens (J. Agardh ex R.M. Laing) W.A. Nelson 2003 . Fronds of D. antarctica can be infected by an endophytic, phaeophycean algal parasite Herpodiscus durvillaeae (Lindauer) G.R. South . Fronds can also be infected Maullinia ,

3700-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

3774-510: The intertidal community. The damage to infrastructure and ecological disturbance caused by the earthquake was assessed to be particularly damaging for seaweed gatherers and cochayuyo harvest. Duvillaea bull kelp diversity appears to have been affected by uplift along the Akatore fault zone . Phylogeographic analyses using mitochondrial COX1 sequence data and genotyping by sequencing data for thousands of anonymous nuclear loci, indicate that

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3848-469: The kelp. In New Zealand, epifaunal species include the crustaceans Parawaldeckia kidderi , P. karaka and Limnoria stephenseni , and the molluscs Cantharidus roseus , Onchidella marginata , Onithochiton neglectus , and Sypharochiton sinclairi . The intertidal spider Desis marina also inhabits the holdfasts of D. antarctica . Plants of D. antarctica can detach from substrates, particularly during storms. The kelp floats as

3922-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

3996-496: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Durvillaea antarctica Durvillaea antarctica , also known as cochayuyo and rimurapa , is a large, robust species of southern bull kelp found on the coasts of Chile , southern New Zealand , and Macquarie Island . D. antarctica , an alga , does not have air bladders, but floats due to

4070-470: The modern distribution of extant Durvillaea species throughout the Southern Ocean, it has been suggested that the distribution may reflect vicariance following the break-up of Gondwana 40 to 50 million years ago, but this distribution can also be explained by the long-distance dispersal of buoyant Durvillaea lineages throughout the Southern Ocean. Based on molecular phylogenetic research, non-buoyancy

4144-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

4218-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

4292-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

4366-436: The recovery of Durvillaea throughout the uplift zone, and oceanographic connectivity modelling, it was hypothesised that the surviving populations of D. antarctica (typically sparse and lower within the intertidal zone) have dominated the early recolonisation. The researchers argued that the newly formed coastline has not yet been fully recolonised though, and the population structure and genomic diversity of D. antarctica in

4440-481: The sale of cochayuyo. Māori use D. antarctica ( rimurapa ) and D. poha to make traditional pōhā bags, which are used to transport food and fresh water, to propagate live shellfish, and to make clothing and equipment for sports. Pōhā are especially associated with Ngāi Tahu and are often used to carry and store muttonbird ( tītī ) chicks. The Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998 protects Durvillaea bull kelp from commercial harvesting within

4514-510: The species is called: cochayuyo ( cocha : lake, and yuyo : weed), and hulte . The Mapuche indigenous people refer to it as collofe or kollof . The expression remojar el cochayuyo (literally: to soak the cochayuyo) is used in Chilean Spanish to refer to sexual intercourse . The expression derives from the fact that harvested D. antarctica is preserved by being sun-dried and then softened by soaking in

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4588-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

4662-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

4736-507: The summer of 2017/18 appears to have caused the local extinction of multiple Durvillaea species at Pile Bay, on the Banks Peninsula . Once the kelp was extirpated, the invasive kelp Undaria pinnatifida recruited in high densities. Earthquake uplift that raises the intertidal zone by as little as 1.5 metres can cause Durvillaea bull kelp to die off in large numbers. Increased sedimentation following landslides caused by earthquakes

4810-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

4884-428: The tissue because of the sheltered habitat it creates. It is also common for its host rock to be broken off without the holdfast losing its grip, with this contributing significantly to erosion in some areas. Recruitment rates of this species is very low, therefore the ecological impact of harvesting this species is too great. Durvillaea antarctica reproduces sexually by producing egg and sperm that are released into

4958-490: The tribe's traditional seaweed-gathering areas. People living in coastal Otago and Southland have also traditionally carved bouncing balls, including cricket balls , out of the solid stipes of Durvillaea . Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

5032-537: The uppermost limit of the intertidal zone, these uplift estimates are slightly less accurate compared to measures derived from other intertidal kelp such as Carpophyllum maschalocarpum . The 2010 Chile earthquake caused significant coastal uplift (~0.2 to 3.1 m), particularly around the Gulf of Arauco, Santa María Island and the Bay of Concepción. This uplift caused large scale die offs of D. antarctica and dramatically affected

5106-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

5180-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

5254-429: The water. Eggs and sperm are produced on specific sites of the frond. A large individual can produce 100 million eggs in twelve hours. The season when reproduction occurs varies with location, but is generally during winter months. Eggs are small and disperse over short distances, and they generally require calm or moderate wave action in order to settle and successfully attach to substrates. Durvillaea antarctica has

5328-576: Was founded by rafts of kelp that were not related to the nearby geographic populations, leading the to current genetically distinct population present at Rarangi. Based on genetic data, the predominantly southern-restricted species D. poha appears to have undergone a recent range expansion into the North Island, as it can be found at low frequencies along the Wellington coastline. This range expansion coincides with areas affected by tectonic uplift and landslides caused by historic earthquakes, including

5402-555: Was hypothesised that this change was induced by the sudden decline in the host D. antarctica population following the earthquake. The D. antarctica sampled from Rarangi , near Blenheim in Marlborough has been found to be genetically distinct from nearby geographic populations, and the kelp is most closely related to D. antarctica populations sampled over 300 km to the south on Banks Peninsula. Independently, based on LiDAR mapping and field observations, geologists have discovered

5476-435: Was used extensively for clothing and tools by Aboriginal Tasmanians , with uses including material for shoes and bags to transport freshwater and food. Currently, D. potatorum is collected as beach wrack from King Island , where it is then dried as chips and sent to Scotland for phycocolloid extraction. D. antarctica and D. incurvata have been used in Chilean cuisine for salads and stews , predominantly by

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