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44-514: Duple Dominant bodywork was built on different chassis types including: front engined mid engined rear engined The original Dominant had a windscreen (and matching rear windows) of the same height as the side windows. After 1976 it received a new design of grille and was known as the Dominant I . It remained in production throughout the Dominant's production life as a cheaper alternative to

88-532: A crack extends to the edge of the panel then this would compromise the structural integrity of the windshield. Aircraft windshields are designed in such a way that even if a crack were to extend all the way across the panel, the structural integrity is maintained via multiple failsafe methods in both frame and the glass plies. A sacrificial outer layer that cracks rather than devitrifies is the first failsafe. Circular bullseyes, linear cracks, crack chips, dings, pits and star-shaped breaks can be repaired without removing

132-491: A declining market share throughout the 1980s and the business was closed down at the end of the 1989 season. The rights to manufacture the 300 series bodies and the Duple 425 integral were purchased by Plaxton , which planned to restart production of the former Duple range at its own Scarborough factory and its French subsidiary Carrosserie Lorraine. In the event these plans were thwarted by declining economic conditions which limited

176-723: A destination display to be included without breaking the roof line, but others had full-height Dominant II type windscreens. The small high-level windows were designed for SBG's overnight Scotland to London services where quietness was more important than passenger views, but nevertheless some other operators did buy the Dominant III as a touring coach. After being retired from long-distance services many SBG Dominant IIIs were rebuilt with larger Dominant I/II or Dominant IV windows to make them more suitable for general coaching work, and many were given replacement bodies later in life. The Dominant IV had slightly shallower side windows than those on

220-434: A different grille and a smaller, flat, single piece rear window. The Dominant III was designed to satisfy a Scottish Bus Group (SBG) requirement for express coaches, and featured shallow, parallelogram -shaped flat double-glazed side windows similar to those on SBG's previous Alexander M-type coaches. Most Dominant IIIs featured a small Dominant I style windscreen mounted in the lower Dominant II position so as to allow

264-623: A few old 11 and 12 m Leyland Leopard chassis received replacement Duple 320 bodies, and a batch of 12m 320s was built on rear-engined Scania K93 chassis in 1988. However, the most popular chassis for the 320 would prove to be the Dennis Javelin . At the time of its launch in 1986 both Dennis and Duple were under common ownership by the Hestair Group so the Duple 320 body was the obvious choice for Javelin prototypes. After series production began in 1988

308-571: A range of bus and coach bodywork built by Duple between 1985 and 1989. The range comprised the 3,000 mm (9 ft 10 + 1 ⁄ 8  in) high Duple 300 service bus, the 3,200 mm (10 ft 6 in) high Duple 320 coach, and the taller 3,400 mm (11 ft 1 + 7 ⁄ 8  in) high Duple 340 coach. The 320 and 340 coaches were announced at the Bus and Coach Show at Earls Court in September 1985 as replacements for

352-410: A windshield is necessary to ensure safety. Different counties have made different set of rule that all windshield manufacturers need to comply under Motor Vehicle Acts. Some of the most know certifications are US DOT, EU ECE, Chinese CCC, South African SABS and Indian BIS standards. These certification ensures safety, reliability and quality of a product as per respective legal requirements. According to

396-486: A windshield. Sports or racing cars would sometimes have aero screens , which were small semi-circular or rectangular windshields. These were often mounted in pairs behind a foldable flat windshield. Aero screens are usually less than 20 cm (8 inches) in height. They are known as aero screens because they only deflect the wind. The twin aeroscreen setup (often called Brooklands ) was popular among older sports and modern cars in vintage style. A wiperless windshield

440-503: Is a simple procedure of melting and reshaping it. One possible method of recycling of simple automotive laminated windshields could involve heating the windshield to above the melting point of the PVB interlayer and then separating the glass plies. This depends chiefly on the differential melting points of PVB and glass and is not suitable for other interlayer materials such as silicone based materials. Duple 300 The Duple 300 Series were

484-487: Is a windshield that uses a mechanism other than wipers to remove snow and rain from the windshield. The concept car Acura TL features a wiperless windshield using a series of jet nozzles in the cowl to blow pressurized air onto the windshield. Also several glass manufacturers have experimented with nano type coatings designed to repel external contaminants with varying degrees of success but to date none of these have made it to commercial applications. Certification of

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528-446: Is implemented. A study by Surrey University and Pilkington Glass proposes that waste laminated glass be placed into a separating device such as a rolling mill where the glass is fragmented and the larger cullet is mechanically detached from the inner film. The application of heat then melts the laminating plastic, usually, polyvinyl butyral "PVB" enabling both the glass and the interior film to be recycled. The PVB recycling process

572-456: Is the front window , which provides visibility while protecting occupants from the elements. Modern windshields are generally made of laminated safety glass , a type of treated glass , which consists of, typically, two curved sheets of glass with a plastic layer laminated between them for safety, and bonded into the window frame. Motorcycle windshields are often made of high-impact polycarbonate or acrylic plastic. Windshields protect

616-524: Is then cured with an ultraviolet light. When done properly, the damaged area’s strength is restored, as is 90–95% of the clarity. Windshields that cannot be repaired have to be replaced. Replacement of a windshield typically takes less than an hour. To ensure the vehicle is safe to drive, time values called the Safe Drive Away Time have been established. Windshields which have been replaced must cure or bond sufficiently until they are able to withstand

660-568: Is used generally throughout the US and Canada. The term windscreen is the usual term in the British Isles and Australasia for all vehicles. In the US windscreen refers to the mesh or foam placed over a microphone to minimize wind noise , while a windshield refers to the front window of a car. In the UK, the terms are reversed, although generally, the foam screen is referred to as a microphone shield, and not

704-679: The runway and become a safety hazard. In many places, laws restrict the use of heavily tinted glass in vehicle windshields; generally, laws specify the maximum level of tint permitted. Some vehicles have noticeably more tint in the uppermost part of the windshield to block sunglare . In aircraft windshields, an electric current is applied through a conducting layer of tin(IV) oxide to generate heat to prevent icing . A similar system for automobile windshields, introduced on Ford vehicles as " Quickclear " in Europe ("InstaClear" in North America) in

748-464: The 1980s and through the early 1990s, used this conductive metallic coating applied to the inboard side of the outer layer of glass. Other glass manufacturers utilize a grid of micro-thin wires to conduct the heat especially on the later European Ford Transit vans. These systems are more typically utilized by European auto manufacturers such as Jaguar and Porsche . The use of thermal glass prevents some navigation systems from functioning correctly, as

792-571: The 1984 season. Due to the small volume of sales it was not worth engineering the Laser for the smaller front-engined Bedford SB and VAS chassis, so Dominant coaches on these chassis continued to be built until 1985. The Dominant Bus remained in production until 1987 when it was replaced by the Duple 300 . Windshield The windshield ( American English and Canadian English ) or windscreen ( Commonwealth English ) of an aircraft , car , bus , motorbike , truck , train , boat or streetcar

836-516: The British government's bus grant which subsidised the cost of new service buses. These were known as the Dominant Express with the appropriate mark number where applicable (e.g. Dominant II Express ). Some such bodies were actually furnished as service buses with low-backed bus seats, in which form the model was known as the Dominant E (again with mark number where applicable). The Dominant E

880-488: The Dominant I and II, and these were available with flat glass as an option. Examples were built with all three varieties of windscreen size/position (Dominant I, Dominant II or hybrid Dominant III style). A few Dominant II/IV hybrids were built with stepped window lines, with larger Dominant I/II windows towards the front and shallower Dominant IV windows towards the rear. Introduction of the Dominant III/IV also heralded

924-552: The Dominant II and because the deeper windscreens of the later Dominant marks were incompatible with some front-engined chassis. Some Dominant I bodies had Dominant II style rear windows, and/or headlights and front grilles. Special narrow bodies built for use on the Channel Islands retained the pre-1976 style grille until the end of production. The Dominant II (introduced in 1976) had a deeper windscreen, rectangular headlights,

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968-502: The Dominant. The first was a high floor body on an early Bedford YMT built as a demonstrator, while the second was an export body with flat, double-glazed windows on a Volvo B58 chassis for Sweden. The name appeared again in 1982 for the Goldliner II, III and IV, which were high-floor versions of the Dominant II, III or IV. All had Dominant II style windscreens, and some coaches not fitted with destination or operator name displays above

1012-531: The Javelin/320 combination accounted for about one third of Duple's coach output. In addition to the standard 11- and 12-metre versions, the Dennis Javelin was also available as an 8.5 m midicoach. The taller Duple 340 was intended to be more upmarket than the 320 and was only available on 12-metre long heavyweight chassis. Initially these were the mid-engined DAF MB200 / MB230, Leyland Tiger and Volvo B10M and

1056-501: The US National Windshield Repair Association, many types of stone damage can be successfully repaired. Whether the windshield can be repaired always depends upon four factors: the size, type, depth and location of the damage. Repair of cracks up to 6.1 cm (2.4 inches) is within permissible limits; automobile glass with more severe damage needs to be replaced. However, this is dependent on local laws. If

1100-543: The UV-A is absorbed by the PVB bonding layer. On motorbikes their main function is to shield the rider from wind, though not as completely as in a car, whereas on sports and racing motorcycles the main function is reducing drag when the rider assumes the optimal aerodynamic configuration with their body in unison with the machine and does not shield the rider from wind when sitting upright. Early windshields were made of ordinary window glass, but that could lead to serious injuries in

1144-423: The clear windshield with smaller dots to minimize thermal stress in manufacturing. The same band of darkened dots is often expanded around the rearview mirror to act as a sunshade. On a rainy day, water refraction on aircraft windshields can mislead pilots into believing that they are flying at a higher altitude than they actually are due to the horizon appearing lower than it is. This can result in undershooting

1188-445: The demand for new coaches. Indeed, the last Dennis Javelin/Duple 320 built for dealer stock was not registered until 1993 (K326ANC). Production of the 300 and 340 did not resume, but Plaxton did re-engineer the 320 to include standard Plaxton parts, in which form it could be sold at a lower price than the equivalent Plaxton Paramount 3200 III. A single batch of 25 12-metre Leyland Tigers was bodied at Scarborough in 1991 and sold through

1232-438: The embedded metal blocks the satellite signal. The RF signal tends to flow along the metal wires or layer so very little radiation can pass. This can be resolved by using an external antenna. Mobile telephones can also have problems; thermal glass typically allows only 0.001 (1‰, or one per mille) of the signal to pass, whereas a concrete wall with rebars allows up to 0.100 (10%, or 100‰) of the signal to pass. The term windshield

1276-490: The event of a crash. A series of crashes led up to the development of stronger windshields. The most notable example of this is the Pane vs. Ford case of 1917 that decided against Pane in that he was only injured through reckless driving . They were replaced with windshields made of toughened glass and were fitted in the frame using a rubber or neoprene seal . The hardened glass shattered into many mostly harmless fragments when

1320-406: The forces of a crash. Knowing the minimum time needed to cure the glass bonding adhesives is therefore important. This safe drive away time (SDAT) or minimum drive away time (MDAT) refers to the time required until a windshield installation or glass replacement is considered safe to drive again. Criteria are specified in U.S. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards 212/208 (see FMVSS ) to ensure

1364-418: The glass, eliminating the risk of leaking or bonding problems sometimes associated with replacement. Some damages are very difficult to repair, or cannot be repaired: In cracked windshield repair, air is removed from the damaged area on the windshield with a specified vacuum injection pump. Then using the injection pump, the clear adhesive resin is injected to replace the air in the windshield crack. The resin

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1408-449: The ideal curing environment can increase the time needed for a sufficiently safe bond to form. Because of the variables and difficulties involved in mobile windshield replacement, many vehicle manufacturers do not recommend this method of installations. Waste disposal of laminated glass is no longer permitted in a landfill in most European countries as the End of Life Vehicles Directive (ELV)

1452-515: The introduction of a new bespoke rear light cluster fitted at a lower level and integrated into the body shape. This was also used on many Goldliners. A lot of these were replaced with other units in later life, probably because they were prone to damage or because spares became difficult to obtain. Many Dominant bodies were built to a dual-purpose specification featuring bus-type doors and other modifications to make them suitable for OMO (one-man operation) stage carriage services, and thus eligible for

1496-446: The level of security achieved: 1) Example: Security exceeding FMVSS 212/208 belted 2) Example: Security exceeding FMVSS 212/208 unbelted With the advent of quick-cure adhesives, mobile windshield replacements have become more prevalent. Often the temperature and humidity cannot be controlled for mobile installations. For most common glass adhesives the ideal environment is 21 °C (70 °F) and 50% humidity . Variations from

1540-604: The previous Laser and Caribbean . Deliveries of these models commenced in 1986, whilst the 300 bus was launched in 1987 as a replacement for the Dominant Bus . After Duple closed down the designs were sold to Plaxton and a small number of additional 320 bodies were built as the Plaxton 321 . When it was launched the 320 was available on 11-metre long Bedford YNT and Leyland Tiger chassis and 12m long Bedford YNV, Leyland Tiger, DAF MB200 / MB230 and Volvo B10M chassis. Subsequently,

1584-477: The rear-engined DAF SB2305, but the Scania K93 also became available in 1988. The 320 and 340 shared similar front ends and windscreens, but the 340 could be distinguished by its greater height, with the side windows being stepped up slightly behind the door/cab window and a curved front roof dome over the cab. Although primarily a coach manufacturer, Duple also manufactured bus bodies on a limited scale. The 300

1628-630: The reliability of adhesive systems. Typically the SDAT is verified with crash tests as well as with high-speed laboratory test methods. Consumers may be unaware that the MDAT or SDAT time is focused on safety and not necessarily on the quality, durability, or warranty of the installation. Care must be taken not to drive the vehicle prior to the SDAT/MDAT. Airbags deploy at speeds up to 320 km/h (200 mph; 89 m/s) and in some cases exert tremendous force on

1672-427: The vehicle's occupants from wind and flying debris such as dust, insects, and rocks, and provide an aerodynamically formed window towards the front. UV coating may be applied to screen out harmful ultraviolet radiation. However, this is usually unnecessary since most auto windshields are made from laminated safety glass . The majority of UV-B is absorbed by the glass itself, and any remaining UV-B together with most of

1716-418: The vehicle's rigidity, but the main force for innovation has historically been the need to prevent injury from sharp glass fragments. Almost all nations now require windshields to stay in one piece even if broken, except if pierced by a strong force. The urethane sealant is protected from UV in sunlight by a band of dark dots called a frit around the edge of the windshield. The darkened edge transitions to

1760-452: The windscreen had a stepped roofline behind the cab. As with the Dominant III, many Goldliner IIIs were subsequently rebuilt with larger single-glazed windows or rebodied. In 1983 the new Duple Laser and high-floor Caribbean were launched as replacements for the full-sized Dominant coach variants and the Goldliner respectively. The last handful of full-sized Dominant coaches were built for

1804-544: The windshield broke. These windshields, however, could shatter from a simple stone chip. "Triplex" glass laminating , however, had been available for windshields in France from 1911 and in Britain from 1912; it was adopted as an accessory by some high-end American auto manufacturers beginning in 1913, and from 1919 to 1929 Henry Ford ordered the use of laminated glass on all of his vehicles. Modern, glued-in windshields contribute to

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1848-439: The windshield. Occupants can impact the airbag just 50  ms after initial deployment. Depending on vehicle design, airbag deployment and/or occupant impact into the airbag may increase forces on the windshield, dramatically in some cases. Forces of occupants on the airbags - and hence the potential forces on the windshield - are lower for belted occupants. As consequence, adhesive suppliers usually inform their customers about

1892-432: Was introduced two years after the coach versions of the series and was available on 11 m Dennis Javelin, Leyland Tiger and Volvo B10M chassis, selling in small quantities only. The largest customer was Hutchison's Coaches of Overtown, Lanarkshire, which purchased 15 Volvos. The 300 had little visual similarity to the coach models apart from the use of similar front grille/headlamps and rear window. Duple had struggled with

1936-451: Was therefore a coach body fitted out as a bus and is not to be confused with the visually dissimilar Dominant Bus which was a purpose-designed bus body built in relatively small numbers from 1974 to 1987. This employed a similar structure to the coach bodies but with flat sides and small windows positioned lower on the body, amongst other differences. The Goldliner name was first used in 1975/76 for two non-standard one-off bodies based on

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