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76-803: Longden was born in Jamaica (where his father's regiment was stationed) to Major John Longden and Susan, née Campbell. Duncan Longden served with distinction with the 13th Regiment (Prince Albert's Light Infantry), and also with the Royal Fusiliers , in India , and received a medal and clasp for Sindh and Balochistan . On resigning his commission after some years service, which included two years as aide-de-camp to Sir Charles Napier in India, Captain Longden arrived in Victoria in

152-441: A Westminster-style parliamentary system . Bustamante, at the age of 78, became the country's first prime minister. Strong economic growth, averaging approximately 6% per year, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative JLP governments; these were led by successive Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster (who died of natural causes within two months of taking office) and Hugh Shearer . The growth

228-421: A second language , estimates of the total number of Anglophones vary from 1.5 billion to 2 billion. David Crystal calculated in 2003 that non-native speakers outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of three to one. Besides the major varieties of English — American , British , Canadian , Australian , Irish , New Zealand English —and their sub-varieties, countries such as South Africa , India , Nigeria ,

304-603: A two-party system , with power often alternating between the People's National Party (PNP) and Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The party with current administrative and legislative power is the Jamaica Labour Party, after its 2020 victory. There are also several minor parties who have yet to gain a seat in parliament; the largest of these is the National Democratic Movement (NDM). The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF)

380-498: A Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit. The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve). The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews who conduct maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations. The role of

456-571: A charge of forgery in 1875.   Jamaica Jamaica ( / dʒ ə ˈ m eɪ k ə / jə- MAY -kə ; Jamaican Patois : Jumieka [dʒʌˈmie̯ka] ) is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies . At 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi), it is the third-largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola —of the Greater Antilles and

532-549: A consecutive win occurred for the JLP was in 1980. However, the turnout at this election was just 37%, probably affected by the coronavirus pandemic. Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy . The head of state is the King of Jamaica (currently King Charles III ), represented locally by the Governor-General of Jamaica . The governor-general is nominated by

608-590: A decline in support for the Seaga government, exacerbated by criticism of the government's response to the devastation caused by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Having now de-emphasised socialism and adopting a more centrist position, Michael Manley and the PNP were re-elected in 1989 , winning 45 seats to the JLP's 15. The PNP went on to win a string of elections, under Prime Ministers Michael Manley (1989–1992), P. J. Patterson (1992–2005) and Portia Simpson-Miller (2005–2007). In

684-501: A directly elected House of Representatives. Andrew Holness has served as Prime Minister of Jamaica since March 2016. As a Commonwealth realm , with Charles III as its king , the appointed representative of the Crown is the Governor-General of Jamaica , an office held by Patrick Allen since 2009. The indigenous people , the Taíno, called the island Xaymaca in their language , meaning

760-572: A federation of several of Britain's Caribbean colonies . Membership of the Federation proved to be divisive, however, and a referendum on the issue saw a slight majority voting to leave. After leaving the Federation, Jamaica attained full independence on 6 August 1962. The new state retained, however, its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations (with the British monarch as head of state) and adopted

836-700: A high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, there is a large Jamaican diaspora , particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The country has a global influence that belies its small size; it was the birthplace of the Rastafari religion, reggae music (and such associated genres as dub , ska and dancehall ), and it is internationally prominent in sports, including cricket , sprinting , and athletics . Jamaica has sometimes been considered

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912-417: A leading sugar exporter, with a plantation economy dependent on continued importation of African slaves and their descendants. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many freedmen chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British began using Chinese and Indian indentured labourers for plantation work. Jamaicans achieved independence from

988-625: A republic with a president. Jamaica's current constitution was drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature. It came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962, which was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom , which gave Jamaica independence. The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral , consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and

1064-501: A result of this incident Golding resigned and was replaced by Andrew Holness in 2011. Independence, however widely celebrated in Jamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century. In 2011, a survey showed that approximately 60% of Jamaicans believe that the country would have been better off had it remained a British colony, with only 17% believing it would have been worse off, citing as problems years of social and fiscal mismanagement in

1140-514: A year while waiting to be rescued. One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, Sevilla , which was established in 1509 by Juan de Esquivel but abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy. The capital was moved to Spanish Town , then called St. Jago de la Vega , around 1534. Meanwhile, the Taínos began dying in large numbers, both from introduced diseases and from enslavement by

1216-580: Is also the primary native language and English is the primary language of government and education, such as Ireland , Gibraltar , and the Commonwealth Caribbean . While English is also spoken by a majority of people as a second language in a handful of countries such as Denmark , the Netherlands , Norway and Sweden , these countries are not considered part of the English-speaking world as

1292-447: Is no archaeological evidence of any human presence on Jamaica until about 500. A group known as the "Redware people" after their pottery arrived circa 600, followed by the Taíno circa 800, who most likely came from South America . They practised an agrarian and fishing economy, and at their height are thought to have numbered some 60,000 people, grouped into around 200 villages headed by caciques (chiefs). The south coast of Jamaica

1368-518: Is so widely spoken, it has often been called a " world language ", the lingua franca of the modern era, and while it is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language . It is, by international treaty, the official language for aeronautical and maritime communications. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations and many other international organizations, including

1444-1124: Is studied most often in the European Union , and the perception of the usefulness of foreign languages among Europeans is 67% in favour of English, ahead of 17% for German and 16% for French (as of 2012 ). In some of the non–English-speaking EU countries, the following percentages of adults claimed to be able to converse in English in 2012: 90% in the Netherlands; 89% in Malta; 86% in Sweden and Denmark; 73% in Cyprus, Croatia, and Austria; 70% in Finland; and over 50% in Greece, Belgium, Luxembourg, Slovenia, and Germany. In 2012, excluding native speakers, 38% of Europeans consider that they can speak English. Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around

1520-465: Is the small but professional military force of Jamaica. The JDF is based on the British military model with similar organisation, training, weapons and traditions. Once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending on the arm of service. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at Up Park Camp or JDF Training Depot, Newcastle, both in St. Andrew. As with

1596-448: The 1993 Jamaican general election , Patterson led the PNP to victory, winning 52 seats to the JLP's eight seats. Patterson also won the 1997 Jamaican general election , by another landslide margin of 50 seats to the JLP's 10 seats. Patterson's third consecutive victory came in the 2002 Jamaican general election , when the PNP retained power, but with a reduced seat majority of 34 seats to 26. Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and

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1672-539: The Anglosphere . Speakers of English are called Anglophones . Early Medieval England was the birthplace of the English language; the modern form of the language has been spread around the world since the 17th century, first by the worldwide influence of England and later the United Kingdom, and then by that of the United States . Through all types of printed and electronic media of these countries, English has become

1748-860: The British Empire in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in World War II. The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of the West Indies Federation , after dissolution of the Federation the JDF was established. The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises an infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing,

1824-596: The Caribbean . Jamaica lies about 145 km (78 nmi) south of Cuba, 191 km (103 nmi) west of Hispaniola (the island containing Haiti and the Dominican Republic ), and 215 km (116 nmi) southeast of the Cayman Islands (a British Overseas Territory ). The indigenous Taíno peoples of the island gradually came under Spanish rule after the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494. Many of

1900-494: The Commonwealth of Nations . English is the primary natively spoken language in several countries and territories. Five of the largest of these are sometimes described as the " core Anglosphere "; they are the United Kingdom , the United States , Australia , Canada , and New Zealand . The term "Anglosphere" can sometimes be extended to include other countries and territories where English or an English Creole language

1976-841: The International Olympic Committee . It is also one of two co-official languages for astronauts (besides the Russian language) serving on board the International Space Station . The English language has a particular significance in the Commonwealth of Nations, which developed from the British Empire. English is the medium of inter-Commonwealth relations. The English language as used in the Commonwealth has sometimes been referred to as Commonwealth English , most often interchangeably with British English . English

2052-541: The Investigator early in 1854. Longden spent some time at the goldfields. Longden was elected to the old unicameral Victorian Legislative Council as the inaugural member for Avoca in November 1855. He held this seat until March 1856 when all electorates were abolished and new ones created in the new bicameral Parliament of Victoria . Longden also contested the elections for Talbot in 1856 and South Grant in 1867, but

2128-476: The Philippines , Singapore , Jamaica , and Trinidad and Tobago also have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from English-based creole languages to Standard English . Other countries and territories, such as Ghana , also use English as their primary official language even though it is not the native language of most of the people. English holds official status in numerous countries within

2204-599: The Rio Nuevo in 1658 resulted in Spanish defeats; in 1660 the Maroon community under the leadership of Juan de Bolas switched sides from the Spanish, and began supporting the English. With their help, the Spanish defeat was secured. In 1661 English civil government was formed and Roundhead soldiers turned their attention to governance and agricultural responsibilities. When the English captured Jamaica, most Spanish colonists fled, with

2280-498: The leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions and professional fields, such as science , navigation and law . The United States and India have the most total English speakers, with 306 million and 129 million, respectively. These are followed by Pakistan (104 million), the United Kingdom (68 million), and Nigeria (60 million). As of 2022, there were about 400 million native speakers of English. Including people who speak English as

2356-518: The "Land of Wood and Water" or the "Land of Springs". Yamaye has been suggested as an early Taino name for the island as recorded by Christopher Columbus . Jamaicans often refer to their home island as "yaad" - the Jamaican Patois word for yard, meaning home. Other colloquial names such as "Jamrock", "Jamdown" ("Jamdung" in Jamaican Patois ), or briefly "Ja" are also widely used. There

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2432-430: The 88 countries and territories in which English is an official, administrative, or cultural language. In the early 2000s, between one and two billion people spoke English, making it the largest language by number of speakers , the third largest language by number of native speakers and the most widespread language geographically. The countries in which English is the native language of most people are sometimes termed

2508-449: The Baptist preacher Samuel Sharpe . The rebellion resulted in hundreds of deaths and the destruction of many plantations, and led to ferocious reprisals by the plantocracy class. As a result of rebellions such as these, as well as the efforts of abolitionists, Britain outlawed slavery in its empire in 1834, with full emancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838. The population in 1834

2584-634: The British had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in from Spanish colonies and directly from Africa. While planning the abolition of slavery, the British Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves. They banned the use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day during each week when slaves could sell their produce, prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves to attend church. The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented and resisted

2660-454: The British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. The JDF is directly descended from the British Army 's West India Regiment , which was formed during the colonial era. The West India Regiment was used extensively throughout

2736-416: The English authorities sought to rein in the worst excesses of the pirates. In 1660, the population of Jamaica was about 4,500 white and 1,500 black. By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugar cane plantations worked by large numbers of slaves, black Africans formed a majority of the population. The Irish in Jamaica also formed a large part of the island's early population, making up two-thirds of

2812-560: The JDF has been called on to assist the nation's police, the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF), in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, an Opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for

2888-449: The JLP back in in 1980 under Edward Seaga , the JLP winning 51 seats to the PNP's nine seats. Firmly anti-Communist, Seaga cut ties with Cuba and sent troops to support the US invasion of Grenada in 1983. The economic deterioration, however, continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors. The largest and third-largest alumina producers, Alpart and Alcoa , closed; and there

2964-434: The JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent. However, the economy faltered in this period due to a combination of internal and external factors (such as the oil shocks). The rivalry between the JLP and PNP became intense, and political and gang-related violence grew significantly in this period. By 1980, Jamaica's gross national product had declined to some 25% below its 1972 level. Seeking change, Jamaicans voted

3040-512: The JLP's 16. Manley's government enacted various social reforms, such as a higher minimum wage , land reform, legislation for women's equality, greater housing construction and an increase in educational provision. Internationally he improved ties with the Communist bloc and vigorously opposed the apartheid regime in South Africa . In 1976, the PNP won another landslide, winning 47 seats to

3116-400: The JLP's 32. As a result, Simpson-Miller became Opposition Leader for a second time. The voter turnout dipped below 50% for the first time, registering just 48.37%. In the 2020 general election , Andrew Holness made history for the JLP by accomplishing a second consecutive win for the Jamaica Labour Party, winning 49 seats to 14 won by the PNP, led this time by Peter Phillips . The last time

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3192-634: The Prime Minister of Jamaica and the entire Cabinet and then formally appointed by the monarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister. The monarch and the governor-general serve largely ceremonial roles, apart from their reserve powers for use in certain constitutional crisis situations. The position of the monarch has been a matter of continuing debate in Jamaica for many years; currently both major political parties are committed to transitioning to

3268-456: The Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament or MPs ) are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the governor-general's best judgement, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the governor-general to be the prime minister. Senators are nominated jointly by the prime minister and

3344-502: The Spanish rulers, and some turned to piracy against the Spanish Empire's shipping . By the early 17th century it is estimated that no more than 2,500–3,000 people lived on Jamaica. The English began taking an interest in the island and, following a failed attempt to conquer Santo Domingo on Hispaniola , Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables led an invasion of Jamaica in 1655. Battles at Ocho Rios in 1657 and

3420-478: The Spanish. As a result, the Spanish began importing slaves from Africa to the island. Many slaves managed to escape, forming autonomous communities in remote and easily defended areas in the interior of Jamaica, mixing with the remaining Taino; these communities became known as Maroons . Many Jews fled the Spanish Inquisition to live on the island. They lived as conversos and were often persecuted by

3496-493: The Taíno. Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Jamaica, claiming the island for Spain after landing there in 1494 on his second voyage to the Americas. His probable landing point was Dry Harbour, called Discovery Bay , and St. Ann's Bay was named "Saint Gloria" by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land. He later returned in 1503; however, he was shipwrecked and he and his crew were forced to live on Jamaica for

3572-571: The United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third most populous Anglophone country in the Americas (after the United States and Canada), and the fourth most populous country in the Caribbean. Kingston is the country's capital and largest city. Most Jamaicans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, with significant European , East Asian (primarily Chinese ), Indian , Lebanese , and mixed-race minorities. Because of

3648-498: The United States whilst also developing links with Communist states such as Cuba. The optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro-Jamaicans, and a concern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor, many of whom ended up living in crime-ridden shanty towns in Kingston. This led to the voters electing the PNP under Michael Manley in 1972. The PNP won 37 seats to

3724-454: The black majority, led to the outbreak of the Morant Bay rebellion in 1865, led by Paul Bogle , which was put down by Governor John Eyre with such brutality that he was recalled from his position. His successor, John Peter Grant , enacted a series of social, financial and political reforms while aiming to uphold firm British rule over the island, which became a Crown Colony in 1866. In 1872

3800-659: The capital was transferred from Spanish Town to Kingston. In 1907, Jamaica was struck by an earthquake which, together with the subsequent fire, resulted in considerable destruction in Kingston and caused the deaths of between 800 and 1,000 people. Unemployment and poverty remained a problem for many Jamaicans. Various movements seeking political change arose as a result, most notably the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League founded by Marcus Garvey in 1917. As well as seeking greater political rights and an improvement for

3876-483: The condition of workers, Garvey was also a prominent Pan-Africanist and proponent of the Back-to-Africa movement . He was also one of the chief inspirations behind Rastafari, a religion founded in Jamaica in the 1930s that combined Christianity with an Afrocentric theology focused on the figure of Haile Selassie , Emperor of Ethiopia . Despite occasional persecution, Rastafari grew to become an established faith on

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3952-427: The country. Holness and the JLP were defeated in the 2011 Jamaican general election , which saw Portia Simpson-Miller and the PNP return to power. The number of seats had been increased to 63, and the PNP swept to power with a landslide 42 seats to the JLP's 21. The voter turnout was 53.17%. Holness's JLP won the 2016 general election narrowly, defeating Simpson-Miller's PNP, on 25 February. The PNP won 31 seats to

4028-403: The exception of Spanish Jews, who chose to remain. Spanish slave holders freed their slaves before leaving. Many slaves dispersed into the mountains, joining the already established maroon communities. During the centuries of slavery, Jamaican Maroons established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence for generations, under

4104-497: The indigenous people either were killed or died of diseases, after which the Spanish brought large numbers of Africans to Jamaica as slaves. The island remained a possession of Spain, under the name Santiago , until 1655, when England (part of what would become the Kingdom of Great Britain ) conquered it and named it Jamaica . It became an important part of the colonial British West Indies . Under Britain's colonial rule, Jamaica became

4180-584: The island, later spreading abroad. The Great Depression of the 1930s hit Jamaica hard. As part of the British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–39 , Jamaica saw numerous strikes, culminating in a strike in 1938 that turned into a riot. As a result, the British government instituted a commission to look into the causes of the disturbances; their report recommended political and economic reforms in Britain's Caribbean colonies. A new House of Representatives

4256-473: The language is still viewed primarily as a foreign tongue and does not serve an important cultural role in society. English is an official language ( de facto or de jure ) of the following countries and territories. Although not official, English is also an important language in some former colonies and protectorates of the British Empire where it is used as an administrative language , namely Brunei , Malaysia , and Sri Lanka . Because English

4332-484: The leadership of Maroon leaders such as Juan de Serras . Meanwhile, the Spanish made several attempts to re-capture the island, prompting the British to support pirates attacking Spanish ships in the Caribbean; as a result piracy became rampant on Jamaica, with the city of Port Royal becoming notorious for its lawlessness. Spain later recognised English possession of the island with the Treaty of Madrid (1670) . After that,

4408-608: The merger of the JDF and JCF. This has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens. In 2017, Jamaica signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons . Jamaica is the 91st most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index . Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes , which are grouped into three historic counties that have no administrative relevance. English-speaking world The English-speaking world comprises

4484-467: The new laws. Members, with membership then restricted to European-descended Jamaicans, claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs. Slave owners feared possible revolts if conditions were lightened. The British abolished the slave trade in 1807, but not the institution itself. In 1831 a huge slave rebellion, known as the Baptist War , broke out, led by

4560-608: The next 20 years, several epidemics of cholera , scarlet fever , and smallpox hit the island, killing almost 60,000 people (about 10 per day). Nevertheless, in 1871 the census recorded a population of 506,154 people, 246,573 of whom were males, and 259,581 females. Their races were recorded as 13,101 white, 100,346 coloured (known as the Browning Class), and 392,707 black. There was an economic slump in this period, with many Jamaicans living in poverty. Dissatisfaction with this, and continued racial discrimination and marginalisation of

4636-659: The parliamentary Leader of the Opposition and are then appointed by the governor-general. The Judiciary of Jamaica operates on a common law system derived from English law and Commonwealth of Nations precedents. The court of final appeal is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , though during the 2000s Parliament attempted to replace it with the Caribbean Court of Justice . Jamaica has traditionally had

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4712-520: The previous two decades, declined significantly. In 2007 the PNP was defeated by the JLP by a narrow margin of 32 seats to 28, with a turnout of 61.46%. This election ended 18 years of PNP rule, and Bruce Golding became the new prime minister. Golding's tenure (2007–2010) was dominated by the effects of the global recession , as well as the fallout from an attempt by Jamaican police and military to arrest drug lord Christopher Coke in 2010 which erupted in violence, resulting in over 70 deaths. As

4788-470: The property of a small planter-class. In the 18th century, slaves ran away and joined the Maroons in increasing numbers, and resulted in The First Maroon War (1728 – 1739/40), which ended in stalemate. The British government sued for peace, and signed treaties with the Leeward Maroons led by Cudjoe and Accompong in 1739, and the Windward Maroons led by Quao and Queen Nanny in 1740. A large slave rebellion, known as Tacky's War , broke out in 1760 but

4864-499: The support battalion is to provide support to boost numbers in combat and issue competency training in order to allow for the readiness of the force. The 1st Engineer Regiment was formed due to an increased demand for military engineers and their role is to provide engineering services whenever and wherever they are needed. The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander, Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrative and Procurement sections. In recent years

4940-454: The white population on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the English population. They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after the conquest of 1655. The majority of Irish were transported by force as political prisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoing Wars of the Three Kingdoms . Migration of large numbers of Irish to the island continued into the 18th century. A limited form of local government

5016-464: The world's least populous cultural superpower . Jamaica is an upper-middle-income country with an economy heavily dependent on tourism; it has an average of 4.3 million tourists a year. The country performs favourably in measures of press freedom , democratic governance and sustainable well-being . Jamaica is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with power vested in the bicameral Parliament of Jamaica , consisting of an appointed Senate and

5092-462: The world; English is the most commonly used language in the sciences, with Science Citation Index reporting as early as 1997 that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though only half of them came from authors in English-speaking countries. In publishing, English literature predominates considerably, with 28% of all books published in the world [Leclerc 2011] and 30% of web content in 2011 (down from 50% in 2000). The increasing use of

5168-477: Was 371,070, of whom 15,000 were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 "coloured" or free people of colour ( mixed race ); and 311,070 were slaves. The resulting labour shortage prompted the British to begin to "import" indentured servants to supplement the labour pool, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations. Workers recruited from India began arriving in 1845, Chinese workers in 1854. Many Jamaicans are descendants of South Asian and Chinese people. Over

5244-464: Was a significant reduction in production by the second-largest producer, Alcan . Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry. There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to the economy. Owing to rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, the government sought International Monetary Fund (IMF) financing, which was dependent on implementing various austerity measures. These resulted in strikes in 1985 and

5320-420: Was defeated by the British and their Maroon allies. After the second conflict in 1795–96, many Maroons from the Maroon town of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) were expelled to Nova Scotia and, later, Sierra Leone . By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted in black people outnumbering white people by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Although

5396-403: Was established in 1944, elected by universal adult suffrage. During this period Jamaica's two-party system emerged, with the creation of the Jamaican Labour Party (JLP) under Alexander Bustamante and the People's National Party (PNP) under Norman Manley . Jamaica slowly gained increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. In 1958 it became a province in the Federation of the West Indies ,

5472-484: Was fuelled by high levels of private investment in bauxite / alumina , tourism , the manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. In the 1967 Jamaican general election , the JLP were victorious again, winning 33 out of 53 seats, with the PNP taking 20 seats. In terms of foreign policy Jamaica became a member of the Non-Aligned Movement , seeking to retain strong ties with Britain and

5548-576: Was introduced with the creation of the House of Assembly of Jamaica in 1664; however, it represented only a tiny number of rich plantation owners. In 1692, the colony was rocked by an earthquake that resulted in several thousand deaths and the almost complete destruction of Port Royal. During the 1700s the economy boomed, based largely on sugar and other crops for export such as coffee , cotton and indigo . All these crops were worked by black slaves, who lived short and often brutal lives with no rights, being

5624-446: Was replaced by Portia Simpson-Miller , Jamaica's first female Prime Minister. The turnout slowly declined during this period of time, from 67.4% in 1993 to 59.1% in 2002. During this period various economic reforms were introduced, such as deregulating the finance sector and floating the Jamaican dollar, as well as greater investment in infrastructure, whilst also retaining a strong social safety net. Political violence, so prevalent in

5700-432: Was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. Though often thought to have become extinct following contact with Europeans, the Taíno in fact still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655. Some fled into interior regions, merging with African Maroon communities. The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any remaining evidence of

5776-623: Was unsuccessful on both occasions. Longden was editor of The Ballarat Star and Geelong Times and the sub-editor of the Melbourne Daily Telegraph . He spoke French, German and Hindustani fluently. Longden was a prominent shareholder and manager of the Ilfracombe Iron Company , a company formed to smelt iron in Northern Tasmania in 1873. After the failure of this venture, Longden was charged, tried, and acquitted on

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