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38-582: The Dubravlag was founded as one of several Gulag special camps in the Mordovian ASSR for political prisoners with a large population of Soviet dissidents . The Dubravlag became a corrective labor camp (ITL) in 1954 and part of the regular Soviet penitentiary system after the Gulag system was dissolved in 1960. The Dubravlag was operated by Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 until it

76-404: A multitude of different transgressions, rather than a single well-defined crime. Political prisoners are frequently arrested and tried with a veneer of legality where false criminal charges , manufactured evidence , and unfair trials ( kangaroo courts , show trials ) are used to disguise the fact that an individual is a political prisoner. For example, AAPP states that "the motivation behind

114-657: A political offense". He proposed the following definition: Political prisoners are defined as individuals that are convicted and incarcerated in politically biased trials (or executive decisions in the absence of any trials). Trials are deemed politically biased if they are endorsed by the government and (a) lack a domestic legal basis, (b) violate principles of procedural justice, or (c) violate universal human rights. Steinert noted that his definition does extend to prisoners "imprisoned for nonpolitical identities such as their religious beliefs or their sexual orientations", as well as individuals engaged in violent actions, arguing that

152-418: A political prisoner is generally awarded to individuals based on the declarations of non-governmental organizations like Amnesty International , on a case-by-case basis. While such statuses are often widely recognized by the international public , they are often rejected by individual governments accused of holding political prisoners, which tend to deny any bias in their judicial systems . A related term

190-429: A rule, governments deny imprisoning individuals for their political activities. A political prisoner can also be someone who has been denied bail unfairly, denied parole when it would reasonably have been given to a prisoner charged with a comparable crime, or special powers may be invoked by the judiciary. Particularly in this latter situation, whether an individual is regarded as a political prisoner may depend upon

228-524: A specific response to such movements (a response which often involved incarceration rather than dialogue, particularly under the less liberal regimes). In some places, political prisoners had their own customs, traditions, and semi-formal organizations and privileges; historically, this has been more common up to around the interwar period , as the many political prisoners came from higher social classes (in particular, nobility ), and authorities often treated them better than common criminals. This changed with

266-559: A time of extreme censorship in the Soviet Union during the late Stalin era . In 1954, after the death of Joseph Stalin , the Dubravlag and many other camps of the Gulag system were converted into regular corrective labor camp (ITL). In 1960, the Soviet government dissolved the Gulag agency and Dubravlag was incorporated into the Soviet penitentiary system. By 1961, the Mordovia camps including

304-559: Is prisoner of conscience (POC), popularized by Amnesty International. It describes someone who was prosecuted because of their personal beliefs. Some prisons, known as political prisons, are accustomed to or are designed solely for hosting political prisoners. The concept of a political prisoner, like many concepts in social sciences, sports numerous definitions, and is undefined in international law and human right treaties. Helen Taylor Greene and Shaun L. Gabbidon in 2009 that "standard legal definitions have remained elusive", but at

342-433: Is conveyed to one only after their detention. Before that, potential political prisoners may be referred to as " dissidents , revolutionaries , social reformers , or radical thinkers". The nature of the behavior that leads to political imprisonment is hard to define and can be roughly described as any "activity deemed questionable by ruling elites ". Therefore, political prisoners may be officially detained and sentenced for

380-628: Is detained for exercising their "human rights under international law, such as peaceable assembly, freedom of religion, freedom of association, free expression, including the freedom to advocate peaceable social or political change, and to criticize government policy or government officials.” Christoph Valentin Steinert, who in 2020 reviewed 366 definitions of political prisoners used in (mainly English language) academic literature in 1956 and 2019, argued that any definition of political prisoner needs to avoid focusing on prisoners' individual motivations and that

418-452: Is no internationally recognized legal definition of the concept, although numerous similar definitions have been proposed by various organizations and scholars, and there is a general consensus among scholars that "individuals have been sanctioned by legal systems and imprisoned by political regimes not for their violation of codified laws but for their thoughts and ideas that have fundamentally challenged existing power relations". The status of

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456-401: Is not just to punish those opposing the regime, but to frighten those who consider opposing the regime by demonstrating the power of the regime by sending a clear warning that objecting is not tolerated, and that the regime is well prepared and ready to punish the objectors through the creation of total institutions dedicated to hosting political prisoners. The status of a political prisoner

494-407: Is to be regarded as a 'political prisoner': Burmese Assistance Association for Political Prisoners defines a political prisoner as "anyone who is arrested because of [their] perceived or real involvement in or supporting role in opposition movements with peaceful or resistance means". The US Congressional-Executive Commission on China defines a political prisoner broadly as any individual who

532-524: The Dubravlag became the sole destination of those convicted of political crimes in the Soviet Union, and continued to function as a penal labor camp during the Khrushchev Thaw . However, the rise of Leonid Brezhnev in 1964 led to an increase in political repression in the Soviet Union and a resurgence in the number of political prisoners. Brezhnev's rule began with the Sinyavsky–Daniel trial , where

570-1040: The February 21, 1948 decree 416—159сс of the USSR Council of Ministers of February 28 decree 00219 of the Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs exclusively for a "special contingent" of political prisoners , convicted according to the more severe sub-articles of Article 58 (Enemies of people): treason, espionage, terrorism, etc., for various real political opponents, such as Trotskyists , "nationalists" (eg. Ukrainian nationalism ), white émigrés , as well as for fabricated ones. Initially, in February 1948, five osoblag s were established, nameless, numbered from 1 to 5. Later, they were given codenames, accordingly, Mineralny Минеральный ( Minlag ), Gorny Горный ( Gorlag ), Dubravny Дубравный ( Dubravlag ), Stepnoy Степной ( Steplag ) and Beregovoy Береговой ( Berlag ). Russian political prisoner and writer Georgy Demidov notices that this naming

608-514: The Vietnam War . Political prisoners sometimes write memoirs of their experiences and resulting insights. Some of these memoirs have become important political texts. For example, King's " Letter From a Birmingham City Jail " has been described as "one of the most important historical documents penned by a modern political prisoner". A number of nongovernmental organizations focus on advocacy for political prisoners. The most prominent of those

646-524: The arrest of every individual in AAPP's database is political, regardless of the laws they have been sentenced under". This is common in situations which may otherwise be decried nationally and internationally as a human rights violation or suppression of a political dissident . Steinert notes that "objective evidence about politically biased imprisonments is chronically sparse considering that governments face substantial incentives to hide repressive practices". As

684-417: The category of prisoners of conscience , the only prisoners who AI demands should be immediately and unconditionally released, as well as people who resort to criminal violence for a political motive. In AI's use of the term, here are some examples of political prisoners: Governments often say they have no political prisoners, only prisoners held under the normal criminal law. AI however describes cases like

722-431: The death of Stalin , most of them were reorganized into regular corrective labor camps. MVD special camps were places of the three largest Gulag uprisings: Norilsk uprising , Vorkuta uprising , and Kengir uprising . Political prisoner A political prisoner is someone imprisoned for their political activity . The political offense is not always the official reason for the prisoner's detention. There

760-409: The differences as follows: AI uses the term "political prisoner" broadly. It does not use it, as some others do, to imply that all such prisoners have a special status or should be released. It uses the term only to define a category of prisoners for whom AI demands a fair and prompt trial. In AI's usage, the term includes any prisoner whose case contains a significant political element, in regard to

798-404: The earliest known political prisoner; imprisoned for allegedly “poisoning” the minds of Grecian youth through his critique of Athenian society and its rulers. Early Christians, including Jesus Christ , and St. Peter , have also been described as such. Another famous historical figure described as a political prisoner is the 15th century French heroine, Joan of Arc , whose final charge of heresy

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836-630: The emergence of the totalitarian regimes that were intent on annihilating the opposition. In Poland, the concept and even traditions of political prisoners emerged around the second half of the 19th century in the Russian partition . While the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 is not legally binding, it is generally recognized as "a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations". Of particular relevance to political prisoners are its Articles 5, 6, 9 and 18. The UDHR and

874-514: The examples given above as "political" and uses the terms "political trial" and "political imprisonment" when referring to them. But by doing so, AI does not oppose the imprisonment, except where it further maintains that the prisoner is a prisoner of conscience, or condemn the trial, except where it concludes that it was unfair. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has the following definition: A person deprived of their personal liberty

912-508: The former Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi , detained for many years without a trial. Likewise, supporters of Tibetan spiritual leader Gedhun Choekyi Nyima in the 11th Panchen Lama controversy have called him a "political prisoner", despite the fact that he is not accused of a political offense. He is held under secluded house arrest . Political prisoners may become the subjects of international advocacy and receive aid from various non-governmental organizations. Criticism from

950-537: The international public opinion has been shown to facilitate the release of political detainees, or reduce their sentences, but is less effective in securing the release of already-sentenced individuals. When the status of political prisoner is well known, it can be seen as a form of status symbol . Some political prisoners purposefully frame themselves as "the imprisoned martyrs and leaders of their movement." Which can safeguard their well-being in prison. Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates has been described as perhaps

988-592: The later Helsinki Accords of 1975 have been used by a number of nongovernmental organizations as the basis for arguing that some governments are in fact holding political prisoners. In the United States , the term political prisoner has been used during the mid-20th century civil rights struggle and has been occasionally applied to individuals like Rosa Parks or Martin Luther King Jr. , and later used for individuals imprisoned for objecting to US involvement in

1026-483: The motivation of the prisoner's acts, the acts themselves, or the motivation of the authorities. "Political" is used by AI to refer to aspects of human relations related to "politics": the mechanisms of society and civil order, the principles, organization, or conduct of government or public affairs, and the relation of all these to questions of language, ethnic origin, sex or religion, status, or influence (among other factors). The category of political prisoners embraces

1064-457: The neutral "classification as a political prisoner neither entails an a priori judgment about the moral legitimacy of prisoners' actions nor does it imply that individuals committed politically motivated crimes". The purpose of political prisons and of imprisoning dissidents is to demonstrate the strength of the regime to the dissidents. The regime's opponents are isolated, and stigmatised, frequently abused, and tortured. The goal of such treatment

1102-662: The penal labor camps in Zubovo-Polyansky District . In 2005, the Dubravlag camp was dissolved and the site has been converted into a prison operated by the Republic of Mordovia branch of the Federal Penitentiary Service . Gulag special camp MVD special camps of the Gulag ( Russian : Особые лагеря МВД, особлаги , osobye lagerya , osoblags ) was a system of special labor camps established addressing

1140-520: The pre-existing nearby town of Temnikov . The Temlag's camp section in Yavas was separated from its industrial operations and incorporated into the new special camp named Dubravny, meaning " oak grove" in Russian . The Soviets established a number of camps in the Mordovian ASSR to hold individuals convicted of "particularly dangerous state crimes " specifically. The Dubravlag became a common destination for writers arrested for Soviet dissident activity at

1178-413: The release of prisoners of conscience, which include both political prisoners as well as those imprisoned for their religious or philosophical beliefs. To reduce controversy, and as a matter of principle, the organization's policy applies only to prisoners who have not committed or advocated violence. Thus, there are political prisoners who do not fit the narrower criteria for POCs. The organisation defines

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1216-503: The same time, observing that there is a general consensus that "individuals have been sanctioned by legal systems and imprisoned by political regimes not for their violation of codified laws but for their thoughts and ideas that have fundamentally challenged existing power relations". A number of organizations involved in human rights issues, as well as scholars studying them, have developed their own definitions, some of which are presented below. Amnesty International (AI) campaigns for

1254-666: The subjective political perspective or interpretation of the evidence. Political prisoners can also be imprisoned with no legal veneer by extrajudicial processes or even through executive decisions in the absence of any trials or charges . Some political prisoners need not be imprisoned at all, as they can be subject to prolonged pre-trial detainment instead. Steinert noted that technically, political detainees should be distinguished from political prisoners, but they are often grouped together, and in practical terms, he recommends treating them as special types of political prisoners. Examples of such detainees can include individuals such as

1292-529: The term "should be exclusively reserved for victims of politically biased trials" (in other words, "victims of state repression "), to avoid delegitimizing the term by diluting it with applications to prisoners of any possibly politically motivated action (which on the extreme end of the spectrum would include, for example, Ku Klux Klanners , neo-Nazis , and jihadist terrorists ). He specifically criticizes definitions of political prisoners as "individuals imprisoned for politically motivated actions" or "committing

1330-569: The writers Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel were convicted of " Anti-Soviet agitation " in a show trial for their writings. In 1966, Sinyavsky and Daniel were both imprisoned at the Dubravlag until their early release in 1971 by Yuri Andropov , the Chairman of the KGB at the time. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, the Dubravlag was inherited by Russia , which maintained many of

1368-590: Was arbitrary, unlike regular Gulag camps, which were commonly named after geographical features or major occupation. Later the following osoblags were created: Rechnoy Речной ( Rechlag , August 1948), Ozyorny Озерный ( Ozyorlag / Ozerlag , December 1948, Песчаный ( Peschanlag  [ ru ] ), Луговой ( Luglag  [ ru ] ), Камышовый ( Kamyshlag  [ ru ] ), Дальний ( Dallag, Ekibastuz  [ ru ] , distinguish from Dallag, Far East  [ ru ] ), and Водораздельный ( Vodorazdellag  [ ru ] ). In 1954, after

1406-554: Was converted into a prison of the Federal Penitentiary Service in 2005. The Dubravlag was established on 28 February 1948 as Gulag special camp No. 3 for political prisoners by merging the Temlag camp and Temnikovsky children's colony, a camp complex of the Soviet Gulag system of forced labor camps. Yavas was founded in 1931 as the headquarters of the Temlag, which was named after

1444-411: Was seen as a legal justification for her real crime of "inconveniencing the elites". Padraic Kenney noted that "the emergence of modern political prisoners coincides with a fifty-year period (1860s–1910s) during which [modern] political movements matured around the world", also defining such movements as having "clearly articulated political and social programs" which forced the governments to develop

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