57-671: Dravyasaṃgraha (Devnagari: द्रव्यसंग्रह) (Compendium of substances) is a 10th-century Jain text in Jain Sauraseni Prakrit by Acharya Nemicandra belonging to the Digambara Jain tradition. It is a composition of 58 gathas (verses) giving an exposition of the six dravyas (substances) that characterize the Jain view of the world: sentient ( jīva ) , non-sentient ( pudgala ) , principle of motion ( dharma ) , principle of rest (adharma) , space (ākāśa) and time ( kāla ) . It
114-413: A molecules . Part of skandha is called desha. Such skandhas may be large or small. Small skandhas may be invisible to the eye, but they can be seen when the combinations are larger. Kala refers to time that brings forth changes. Past, present, and future are the different modes of time and are measured in terms of years, months, days, hours, minutes or seconds. For practical purposes a second happens to be
171-494: A collection of spaces or regions. Dharmastikaya denotes the medium of motion for things in the universe. In the absence of this medium, living things (i.e. jiva ) would not be able to move. Adharmastikaya is also formed from two words: Adharma & Astikaya. Adharma in this case means the medium of rest. In the absence of this medium, Living things or jiva would continuously move. The infinity of space, called ākāśa in Sanskrit,
228-415: A long famine caused a crisis in the community, who found it difficult to keep the entire Jain canon committed to memory. Bhadrabahu decided to travel south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra , another Jain leader remained behind. The famine decimated the Jain community, leading to the loss of many canonical texts. According to Śvētāmbara ("white-clad") tradition, the agamas were collected on
285-443: A small portion have been published and studied by scholars. Agamas are the main scriptures followed by Jains as preached by Tirthankars. Both Shwetambar and Digambar sects believe in 12 Agamas. Both also believe that the 12th Agama Drishtivaad ( Dṛṣṭivāda ) was lost over a period of time and realised the need to turn the oral tradition to written. While Digambaras believed that all the 12 Agamas were lost, Shwetambars believed that
342-605: A steady mind for the attainment of extraordinary meditation. Do not act, do not talk, do not think at all, so that the soul is steady and is content in the self. This indeed is supreme meditation. Verses 49 to 54 of the Dravyasaṃgraha, succinctly characterizes the five Supreme Beings ( Pañca-Parameṣṭhi ) and their characteristics. Having destroyed the four inimical varieties of karmas (ghātiyā karmas), possessed of infinite faith, happiness, knowledge and power, and housed in most auspicious body (paramaudārika śarīra), that pure soul of
399-448: Is eternal(अनादि अनंत) , and the teachings of the first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha existed millions of years ago. It states that the tirthankaras taught in divine preaching halls called samavasarana , which were heard by gods, ascetics and laypersons. These divine discourses were called Śhrut Jnāna (or heard knowledge) and always comprises eleven angas and fourteen purvas . The discourses are remembered and transmitted by
456-461: Is an ascending era in which the reverse takes place. The present era is stated to be the former. Indivisible time = 1 Samaya (smallest unit of measurement) Countless Samayas = 1 Avalika 16,777,216 Avalikas = 1 Muhurt (48 minutes) 30 Muhurtas = 1 day and night 15 Days and nights = 1 Paksha 2 Pakshas = 1 Month 12 Months = 1 Year Countless years = 1 Palyopam 1,000,000,000,000,000 (one quintillion) Palyopams = 1 Sagaropam; one quintillion
513-444: Is anything that has no soul or life, the polar opposite of " jīva " (soul). Because ajiva has no life, it does not accumulate karma and cannot die. Examples of ajiva include chairs, computers, paper, plastic, etc. In Jainism , there are five categories which ajīva can be placed into. Out of these, four categories, Dharma (medium of motion), Adharma (medium of rest), Akasha (space) and Pudgala (matter) are described as
570-708: Is considered by F. Kielhorn as the best grammar work of the Indian middle age. Hemacandra's book Kumarapalacaritra is also noteworthy. Jaina narrative literature mainly contains stories about sixty-three prominent figures known as Salakapurusa , and people who were related to them. Some of the important works are Harivamshapurana of Jinasena ( c. 8th century CE ), Vikramarjuna-Vijaya (also known as Pampa-Bharata) of Kannada poet named Adi Pampa ( c. 10th century CE ), Pandavapurana of Shubhachandra ( c. 16th century CE ). Jain literature covered multiple topics of mathematics around 150 AD including
627-971: Is contained in the canonical Jain Agamas, which are written in Ardhamagadhi , a Prakrit ( Middle-Indo Aryan ) language. Various commentaries were written on these canonical texts by later Jain monks . Later works were also written in other languages, like Sanskrit and Maharashtri Prakrit . Jain literature is primarily divided between the canons of the Digambara and Śvētāmbara orders. These two main sects of Jainism do not always agree on which texts should be considered authoritative. More recent Jain literature has also been written in other languages, like Marathi , Tamil , Rajasthani , Dhundari , Marwari , Hindi , Gujarati , Kannada , Malayalam and more recently in English . The Jain tradition believes that their religion
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#1733094052862684-731: Is defined in verses 16–22. Among these, as per verse 23, the Jiva, pudgala, dharma, adharma, and akasa are called astikayas , the extensibles or conglomerates. The second part deals with the seven tattvas (fundamental principles or verities): jīva (soul), ajīva (non soul), āsrava (karmic inflow), bandha (bondage of karmas), saṃvara (stoppage of karmas), nirjarā (shedding of karmas) and mokṣa (emancipation or liberation). Together with puṇya (merit or beneficial karma) and pāpa (demerit or harmful karma) they form nine padārtha . Some call all nine as navatattava or nine tattvas . The third part of Dravyasaṃgraha begins with verse 39 describing
741-517: Is divided by the Jain philosophy into two parts, namely, the lokākāśa (loka+ākāśa), that is the space occupied by the universe, and the alokākāśa (a not, and lokākāśa), the portion beyond the universe. The lokākāśa is the portion in which are to be found the remaining five substances, i.e., Jīvas , Matter, Time, Dharma and Adharma; but the alokākāśa is the region of pure space containing no other substance and lying stretched on all sides beyond bounds of
798-664: Is generally accepted now that the Jain nun Kanti inserted a 445-verse poem into Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi in the 12th century. The Tamil Jain literature, according to Dundas, has been "lovingly studied and commented upon for centuries by Hindus as well as Jains". The themes of two of the Tamil epics, including the Silapadikkaram , have an embedded influence of Jainism. Jain scholars also contributed to Kannada literature . The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual in having been written under
855-549: Is known about him from his own works, at the end of the Trilokasāra and of the Gommaṭasāra , he introduces himself as a pupil of Abhayanandi, Vīranandi, Indranandi and Kanakanandi. He is said to have inspired Camundaraya to build the famous Bāhubali statue at Shravanabelagola . Vahuvali Charitra (a Jain work based on collection of traditions) notes that Nemicandra belonged to the monastic order of Desiya gana. After establishing
912-557: Is one of the most important Jain works and has gained widespread popularity. Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often memorized because of its comprehensiveness as well as brevity. 10th century Jain Acarya , Nemicandra Siddhānta Cakravartin is regarded as the author of Dravyasaṃgraha . He was the teacher of Camundaraya —the general of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Karnataka . Nemicandra
969-404: Is separated from the main pudgala, is called Paramanu. A paramanu is much more minute than even an atom . When a Paramanu is attached to the main pudgala, it is called a Pradesha. These subatomic Paramanus are too minute to be detected by normal vision, but they can be combined. Thus when a paramanu is combined with one or more other paramanus, they are called a skandha which are more or less like
1026-513: Is to say, they were written after the closure of the Jain canons, though the different canons were closed at different historical eras, and so this category is ambiguous. Thus, Umaswati 's (c. between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) Tattvarthasūtra ("On the Nature of Reality") is included in the Digambara canon, but not in the Śvētāmbara canons (though they do consider the work authoritative). Indeed,
1083-592: The Ganadharas (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve angas (parts, limbs). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of divine sound or sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains. According to the Jain tradition, the divine Śhrut Jnāna of a tirthankara is then converted into sutta (scripture) by his disciples, and from such suttas emerge
1140-861: The Tattvarthasūtra is considered the authoritative Jain philosophy text by all traditions of Jainism. It has the same importance in Jainism as Vedanta Sūtras and Yogasūtras have in Hinduism . Other non-canonical works include various texts attributed to Bhadrabahu ( c. 300 BCE ) which are called the Niryuktis and Samhitas . According to Winternitz, after the 8th century or so, Svetambara Jain writers, who had previously worked in Prakrit, began to use Sanskrit. The Digambaras also adopted Sanskrit somewhat earlier. The earliest Jain works in Sanskrit include
1197-655: The Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama (Six Part Scripture), which is held to be one of the oldest Digambara texts. They are dated to between the 2nd to 3rd century CE. Around the same time, Āchārya Gunadhar wrote Kaşāyapāhuda (Treatise on the Passions). These two texts are the two main Digambara Agamas. The Digambara canon of scriptures includes these two main texts, three commentaries on the main texts, and four (later) Anuyogas (expositions), consisting of more than 20 texts. The great commentator Virasena wrote two commentary texts on
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#17330940528621254-690: The Apabhramsha language are Jain works. The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and the Jain Prakrit (the Jain Agamas , Agama-Tulya, the Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra, Puranas , Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri , is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand
1311-546: The Ramayana and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, the Prakrits, Apabhraṃśa and Kannada. Jain Prakrit is a term loosely used for the language of the Jain Agamas (canonical texts). The books of Jainism were written in the popular vernacular dialects (as opposed to Sanskrit ), and therefore encompass a number of related dialects. Chief among these is Ardha Magadhi , which due to its extensive use has also come to be identified as
1368-480: The asti-kaya dravya's (substances which possess constituent parts extending in space) while the fifth category Kala is an anasti-kaya dravya (which has no extension in space). Dharmastikaya is formed from the two words: Dharma & Astikaya. Dharma here isn't referring to religion, but instead its referring to the medium of motion. Astikay itself is formed of two words: Asti & Kaya. Asti means space, body or mode and Kaya means collection. So Astikaya means
1425-412: The universe is called Pudgala. Pudgala has form and shape . Pudgala can be experienced by touching, tasting, smelling, or seeing. Like Jiva Pudgala is also mobile. According to Jainism , The karma particles that attach to our souls are also Pudgala. Pudgala can only be divided and subdivided to a certain extent that it is not possible to further subdivide it. This indivisible part of Pudgala, which
1482-579: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra , the Sūtrakṛtāṅga Sūtra , and the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra are among the oldest texts in the canon. This does not guarantee that they actually date from the time of Mahāvīra, nor even from the centuries immediately following his death, nor does it guarantee that all parts of these texts were composed simultaneously. Elsewhere, Bronkhorst states that the Sūtrakṛtāṅga "dates from
1539-819: The Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , the Dhaval‑tika on the first five volumes and Maha‑dhaval‑tika on the sixth volume of the Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , around 780 CE. Virasena and his disciple, Jinasena , also wrote a commentary on the Kaşāyapāhuda , known as Jaya‑dhavala‑tika . There is no agreement on the canonical Anuyogas ("Expositions"). The Anuyogas were written between the 2nd and the 11th centuries CE , either in Jaina Śaurasenī Prakrit or in Sanskrit . The expositions ( Anuyogas ) are divided into four literary categories: There are various later Jain works that are considered post-canonical, that
1596-460: The 2nd century BCE at the very earliest," based on how it references the Buddhist theory of momentariness, which is a later scholastic development. During the reign of Chandragupta Maurya ( c. 324 or 321 – c. 297 BCE), Āchārya Bhadrabahu ( c. 367 – c. 298 BCE ), said to have been the last knower of the complete Jain agamas , was the head of Jain community . At this time,
1653-583: The Agamas and recorded them as written manuscripts under the leadership of Acharya Shraman Devardhigani along with other 500 Jain scholars. The existing Śvētāmbara canons are based on the Vallabhi council texts. From the 15th century onwards, various Śvetāmbara subsects began to disagree on the composition of the canon. Mūrtipūjaks ("idol-worshippers") accept 45 texts, while the Sthānakavāsins and Terāpanthins only accept 32. The canons ( Siddhāntha ) of
1710-461: The Digambara collections in Karnataka temples, have a large number of well-preserved manuscripts. These include Jain literature and Hindu and Buddhist texts. Almost all have been dated to about, or after, the 11th century CE. The largest and most valuable libraries are found in the Thar Desert , hidden in the underground vaults of Jain temples. These collections have witnessed insect damage, and only
1767-508: The Jain Prakrit, Ardha-Magadhi and other languages, words, their use and references within oldest Jain literature. Jain literature was written in Apabhraṃśa (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Standard Hindi (Chhahadhala, Moksh Marg Prakashak , and others), Tamil ( Nālaṭiyār , Civaka Cintamani , Valayapathi , and others), and Kannada ( Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of
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1824-491: The World Teacher (Arhat) should be meditated on. One of the most popular commentaries of Dravyasaṃgraha is that by Brahmadeva from around the 14th century. Other commentaries on the work include: Jain text Jain literature ( Sanskrit : जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion . It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material
1881-515: The basis of the collective memory of the ascetics in the first council of Pataliputra under the stewardship of Sthulibhadra in around to 463–367 BCE. During the council, eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled and the remnant of fourteen purvas were written down in a 12th Anga. Another council was later organised in 2nd-century BCE in Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves , Kalinga (now in Odisha ) during
1938-462: The composition of the Jain Agamas starting from the 6th century BCE, some western scholars, such as Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, argue that the earliest portions of Jain canonical works were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BCE. According to Johannes Bronkhorst it is extremely difficult to determine the age of the Jain Agamas, however: Mainly on linguistic grounds, it has been argued that
1995-410: The contrast between the material and the spiritual angles ( dravya and bhāva ). Sarat Chandra Ghoshal, the translator of Dravyasaṃgraha , divides the entire text in three convenient parts—the first part deals with six dravyas (verses 1–27), the second with seven tattvas (verses 28–39) and the third part describes the way to attain liberation (verses 40–57). In tine opening verse, along with
2052-651: The definitive form of Prakrit . Other dialects include versions of Maharashtri and Sauraseni . Parts of the Sangam literature in Tamil are attributed to Jains. The authenticity and interpolations are controversial because it presents Hindu ideas. Some scholars state that the Jain portions were added about or after the 8th century CE, and are not ancient. Tamil Jain texts such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār are credited to Digambara Jain authors. These texts have seen interpolations and revisions. For example, it
2109-450: The doctrine that had survived in their community. As such, Digambaras have a different set of canonical scriptures. According to von Glasenapp, the Digambara texts partially agree with the enumerations and works of older Śvētāmbara texts, but in many cases there are also major differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions. In 453 or 466 CE, the Śvētāmbara order held another council at Vallabhi . The Śvētāmbaras recompiled
2166-414: The finest measurement of time. Jainism however, recognizes a very small measurement of time known as samaya which is an infinitely small part of a second . Kala (time) is infinite, but there are cycles ( kalachakra s) in it. Each cycle having two eras of equal duration described as the avasarpini and the utsarpini . The former is a descending era in which virtue gradually decreases. The latter
2223-726: The first 11 Agamas were not lost. They compiled them in written format in the 6th century CE in Vallabhi, Gujarat. The list is as follows. There are 45 Agamas (11 Angā Agamas and 34 Angā Bahya Agamas). The 34 Anga Bahya Agamas consist of 12 Upānga Agamas, 6 Cheda sūtras, 6 Mūla sūtras, and 10 Paiṇṇaya sutras. Upānga Agamas Cheda sūtras (texts relating to the conduct and behaviour of monks and nuns) Mūla sūtras ('Fundamental texts' which are foundational works studied by new monastics) Paiṇṇaya sutras (Sanskrit: Prakīrnaka sūtras, "Miscellaneous") Major scriptures by Acharya Umaswati (1st–2nd Century AD) Ajiva Ajiva ( Sanskrit )
2280-449: The following: According to the Digambara tradition, the original scriptures had been lost by about the 2nd century CE. Āchārya Bhutabali is considered the last ascetic who had some partial knowledge of the original canon. Digambara tradition holds that Āchārya Dharasena (1st century CE), guided Āchārya Pushpadanta and Āchārya Bhutabali to write what remained of the lost teachings down into palm-leaf scriptures. These two Āchāryas wrote
2337-550: The formal canons. The suttas are grouped into duvala samgagani pidaga (twelve limbed baskets), which are transmitted orally by the disciples. In every universal cycle of Jain cosmology, twenty-four tirthankaras appear and so do the Jain scriptures for that cycle. Initially, the canonical scriptures were transmitted through an oral tradition and consisted of teachings of historical Jain leaders like Mahavira codified into various collections. Gautama and other Gandhars (the chief disciples of Mahavira) are said to have compiled
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2394-413: The intrinsic movement upwards. The various characteristics of Jiva mentioned in the definition are taken up one by one in verses 3–14. Dravyasaṃgraha classifies the embodied souls on the basis of the number of senses possessed by it: from one to five senses. After this detailed description of Jivas the author proceeds to describe Ajivas — Pudgala , Dharma , adharma, Akasa and Kala, each of which
2451-530: The means to attain liberation from conventional and real point of views. The three jewels of Jainism also known as Ratnatraya — Samyak darśana (rational perception), samyak jñāna (rational knowledge) and samyak cāritra (rational conduct)—which are essential in achieving liberation—are defined and the importance of dhyāna (meditation) is emphasized. On meditation, Nemicandra says: Do not be deluded, do not be attached, do not feel aversion for things which are (respectively) dear or not dear (to you), if you desire
2508-501: The oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. The first autobiography in the ancestor of Hindi, Braj Bhasha , is called Ardhakathānaka and was written by a Jain, Banarasidasa , an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra . Many Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject. Practically all the known texts in
2565-600: The original sacred scriptures which were divided into twelve Angas or parts. They are referred to as the eleven Angas and the fourteen Pūrvas , since the twelfth Anga comprises fourteen Pūrvas . These scriptures are said to have contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of Jain learning. The Jain Agamas and their commentaries were composed mainly in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit as well as in Maharashtri Prakrit . While some authors date
2622-452: The patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. They describe warrior violence and martial valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic", setting aside Jainism's absolute non-violence. Jain manuscript libraries called bhandaras inside Jain temples are the oldest surviving in India. Jain libraries, including the Śvētāmbara collections at Patan, Gujarat and Jaiselmer, Rajasthan , and
2679-540: The reign of Kharavela . The Śvētāmbara order considers these Jain Agamas as canonical works and sees them as being based on an authentic oral tradition. They consider their collection to represent a continuous tradition, though they accept that their collection is also incomplete because of a lost Anga text and four lost Purva texts. However, these texts were rejected by the Digambara (lit. "sky-clad", i.e. naked) order, which hold that Āchārya Bhutabali (1st Century CE)
2736-640: The same kind of authority as the other works in the canon. Most of these works are in Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit, unlike the other Śvetāmbara scriptures which tend to be in Ardhamāgadhī. They are therefore most likely later works than the Aṅgas and Upāṅgas. Mūrtipūjak Jain canons will generally accept 10 Paiṇṇayas as canonical, but there is widespread disagreement on which 10 scriptures are given canonical status. The most widely accepted list of ten scriptures are
2793-465: The same topics as the Dravyasaṃgraha . According to Nalini Balbir , the Dravyasaṃgraha is largely a work of definitions of concepts with mnemonic perspective. In its 58 verses, the author makes skillful use of āryā metre . Nemicandra's presentation is often articulated around the opposition between the conventional and the absolute points of view ( vyavahāra and niścaya-naya ), or around
2850-512: The statue of Bāhubali, Camundaraya offered villages yielding a revenue of 96,000 gold coins to Nemicandra for daily worship of and festivals for Gommatesvara (Lord Bāhubali). Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often memorized because of its comprehensiveness and brevity. The composition of Dravyasaṃgraha is influenced from the earlier Jain works such as Umāsvāti's Tattvārthasūtra and Kundakunda 's Pañcāstikāyasara because these works are based on
2907-571: The theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, bi-quadric equations, permutations, combinations and logarithms. Jains literature exists mainly in Jain Prakrit , Sanskrit , Marathi , Tamil , Rajasthani , Dhundari , Marwari , Hindi , Gujarati , Kannada , Malayalam , Telugu and more recently in English . Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature . For example, almost all early Kannada literature and many Tamil works were written by Jains. Some of
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#17330940528622964-455: The three worlds (the entire universe). At the summit of the lokākāśa is the Siddhashila (abode of the liberated souls). The word Pudgala is made up of two terms: Pud means supplement (integration) and Gala means disintegration (division). In other words, what continuously changes by supplementation and/or division ( purayanti galanti cha ) is called Pudgala or matter . All matter in
3021-423: The usual mangalacharana (eulogy), it is mentioned that dravya consists of jiva and ajiva . In the second verse Jiva is defined: The sentient substance (soul) is characterized by the function of understanding, is incorporeal, performs actions (doer), is co-extensive with its own body. It is the enjoyer (of its actions), located in the world of rebirth ( samsara ) (or) emancipated ( moksa ) (and) has
3078-637: The writings of Siddhasēna Divākara ( c. 650 CE ), who wrote the Sanmatitarka ('The Logic of the True Doctrine') is the first major Jain work on logic written in Sanskrit . Other later works and writers include: Jainendra-vyakarana of Acharya Pujyapada and Sakatayana-vyakarana of Sakatayana are both works on grammar written in c. 9th century CE . Siddha-Hem-Shabdanushasana" by Acharya Hemachandra ( c. 12th century CE )
3135-564: The Śvētāmbaras are generally composed of the following texts: To reach the number 45, Mūrtipūjak Śvētāmbara canons contain a "Miscellaneous" collection of supplementary texts, called the Paiṇṇaya suttas (Sanskrit: Prakīrnaka sūtras , "Miscellaneous"). This section varies in number depending on the individual sub-sect (from 10 texts to over 20). They also often included extra works (often of disputed authorship) named "supernumerary Prakīrṇakas". The Paiṇṇaya texts are generally not considered to have
3192-429: Was a prolific author and a specialist in summarizing and giving lucidly the essence of teachings in various fields; saṃgrahas (compendium) and sāras (essence) were his specialty. He also wrote Trilokasāra (essence of cosmology), Labdhisāra (essence of attainments), Kṣapaṇasāra (essence on destruction of karmas), and Gommaṭasāra (essence of Gommata, a treatise on soul and Karma). Although not much
3249-500: Was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to Digambaras, the Purvas and the original Agamas of Gautama were lost during the Mauryan period crisis and famine. This Digambara stance on the loss of the Agamas is one of the disagreements that led to the main schism in Jainism. Digambara masters proceeded to create new scriptures which contained the knowledge of
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