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97-793: Disinformation is misleading content deliberately spread to deceive people, or to secure economic or political gain and which may cause public harm. Disinformation is an orchestrated adversarial activity in which actors employ strategic deceptions and media manipulation tactics to advance political, military, or commercial goals. Disinformation is implemented through attacks that "weaponize multiple rhetorical strategies and forms of knowing—including not only falsehoods but also truths , half-truths , and value judgements —to exploit and amplify culture wars and other identity-driven controversies." In contrast, misinformation refers to inaccuracies that stem from inadvertent error. Misinformation can be used to create disinformation when known misinformation

194-597: A kidnapping as a protective custody . A seventeenth-century story collection, Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles (ca. 1617), offers multiple examples of the bait-and-switch and fraud techniques involving the stimulation of greed in Ming-dynasty China. Deception is particularly common within romantic relationships, with more than 90% of individuals admitting to lying or not being completely honest with their partner at one time. There are three primary motivations for deception in relationships. Deception impacts

291-405: A "cluster" of these cues was a significantly more reliable indicator of deception than examining a single cue. Many people believe that they are good at deception, though this confidence is often misplaced. Deception detection can decrease with increased empathy. Emotion recognition training does not affect the ability to detect deception. Mark Frank proposes that deception is detected at

388-485: A 2016 interview, after being made the subject of a fake news website during the 2016 U.S. election cycle which falsely claimed that he supported Donald Trump . He said the worst thing the news media could do was spread disinformation. He said the act was a sin , comparing those who spread disinformation to individuals who engage in coprophilia . In a contribution to the 2014 book Military Ethics and Emerging Technologies , writers David Danks and Joseph H. Danks discuss

485-574: A 2023 research article published in New Media & Society , disinformation circulates on social media through deception campaigns implemented in multiple ways including: astroturfing , conspiracy theories , clickbait , culture wars , echo chambers , hoaxes, fake news , propaganda , pseudoscience , and rumors . Label: The instrumentalization of the term to delegitimize news media In order to distinguish between similar terms, including misinformation and malinformation, scholars collectively agree on

582-458: A civil rights march) to active deception (i.e. falsely identifying oneself over the telephone, getting hired as a worker at a mental hospital). Paul Braun says that the journalist does not stand apart from the rest of the populace in the use of deception. For legal purposes, deceit is a tort that occurs when a person makes a factual misrepresentation, knowing that it is false (or having no belief in its truth and being reckless as to whether it

679-441: A dangerous position may make a feint attack or fake retreat, to make the enemy think they are doing one thing while in fact they have another goal. The camouflage of a physical object often works by breaking up the visual boundary of that object. This usually involves colouring the camouflaged object with the same colours as the background against which the object will be hidden. In the realm of deceptive half-truths , camouflage

776-415: A deception study or the unpleasant implications of the outcome of a deception study may be the underlying reason that a study using deception is perceived as unethical in nature, rather than the actual deception itself (Broder, 1998, p. 806; Christensen, 1988, p. 671). Some methodologies in social research, especially in psychology , involve deception. The researchers purposely mislead or misinform

873-915: A desire to be overly dependent on their partner in an unhealthy way (anxious attachment style). Those with an insecure attachment style are characterized by not believing that their romantic partner can/will support and comfort them in an effective way, either stemming from a negative belief regarding themselves (anxious attachment style) or a negative belief regarding romantic others (avoidant attachment style). Women are more likely to commit infidelity when they are emotionally unsatisfied with their relationship whereas men are more likely to commit infidelity if they are sexually unsatisfied with their current relationship. Women are more likely to commit emotional infidelity than men while men are more likely to commit sexual infidelity than women; however, these are not mutually exclusive categories as both men and women can and do engage in emotional or sexual infidelity. Executive control

970-504: A different person than reality because of the lack of face-to face communication which allows them to fit in with a specific group they wish to be a part of. As technology continues to expand, deception online is common to see. Digital deception is widely used within different forms of technology to misrepresent someone or something. Through digital deception, people are easily capable of deceiving others whether it be for their own benefit or to ensure their safety. One form of digital deception

1067-607: A form of disinformation, as they mislead the public about their true objectives and who their controllers are. Most recently, disinformation has been deliberately spread through social media in the form of " fake news ", disinformation masked as legitimate news articles and meant to mislead readers or viewers. Disinformation may include distribution of forged documents , manuscripts, and photographs, or spreading dangerous rumours and fabricated intelligence . Use of these tactics can lead to blowback , however, causing such unintended consequences such as defamation lawsuits or damage to

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1164-405: A high percent of "socially desirable" answers and the researcher would, in any case, be unable to verify the accuracy of these responses. In general, then, when it is unfeasible or naive to simply ask people directly why or how often they do what they do, researchers turn to the use of deception to distract their participants from the true behavior of interest. So, for example, in a study of cheating,

1261-507: A higher frequency of cross-spectrum discussion. Other evidence has found that disinformation campaigns rarely succeed in altering the foreign policies of the targeted states. Research is also challenging because disinformation is meant to be difficult to detect and some social media companies have discouraged outside research efforts. For example, researchers found disinformation made "existing detection algorithms from traditional news media ineffective or not applicable...[because disinformation]

1358-406: A higher pitched voice. The liars that experience guilt have been shown to make attempts at putting distance between themselves and the deceptive communication, producing "nonimmediacy cues" These can be verbal or physical, including speaking in more indirect ways and showing an inability to maintain eye contact with their conversation partners. Another cue for detecting deceptive speech is the tone of

1455-424: A large cloud to aid in escape from predators is a form of camouflage. A disguise is an appearance to create the impression of being somebody or something else; for a well-known person this is also called incognito. Passing involves more than mere dress and can include hiding one's real manner of speech. The fictional detective Sherlock Holmes often disguised himself as somebody else to avoid being recognized. In

1552-452: A location far from the fabricated "dummy" tanks. Mock airplanes and fake airfields have also been created. To get someone's attention from the truth by offering bait or something else more tempting to divert attention away from the object being concealed. For example, a security company publicly announces that it will ship a large gold shipment down one route, while in reality taking a different route. A military unit trying to maneuver out of

1649-405: A mainstay of so-called skeptical arguments, which purport to put into question our knowledge of reality. The punch of the argument is that all we know might be wrong, since we might be deceived. Stanley Cavell has argued that all skepticism has its root in this fear of deception. Psychological research often needs to deceive the subjects as to its actual purpose. The rationale for such deception

1746-427: A more abstract sense, 'disguise' may refer to the act of disguising the nature of a particular proposal in order to hide an unpopular motivation or effect associated with that proposal. This is a form of political spin or propaganda , covering the matters of rationalisation and transfer within the techniques of propaganda generation . For example, depicting an act of war (an attack) as a "peace" mission or "spinning"

1843-455: A munitions plant as a healthcare facility in order to avoid attack would be outside the bounds of acceptable use of disinformation during war. Research related to disinformation studies is increasing as an applied area of inquiry. The call to formally classify disinformation as a cybersecurity threat is made by advocates due to its increase in social networking sites. Despite the proliferation of social media websites, Facebook and Twitter showed

1940-510: A result, research shows that disinformation can be conceptualized as a program that encourages engagement in oppositional fantasies (i.e., culture wars ), through which disinformation circulates as rhetorical ammunition for never-ending arguments. As disinformation entangles with culture wars , identity-driven controversies constitute a vehicle through which disinformation disseminates on social media . This means that disinformation thrives, not despite raucous grudges but because of them. The reason

2037-513: A social media ecosystem, and "echoing" is when the audience disseminates disinformation argumentatively as their own opinions often by incorporating disinformation into a confrontational fantasy. Studies show four main methods of seeding disinformation online: Disinformation is amplified online due to malpractice concerning online advertising , especially the machine-to-machine interactions of real-time bidding systems. Online advertising technologies have been used to amplify disinformation due to

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2134-488: A thin understanding of journalistic processes; and, has progressed more through the exigencies of grant funding than the development of theory and empirical findings." Alternative perspectives have been proposed: The research literature on how disinformation spreads is growing. Studies show that disinformation spread in social media can be classified into two broad stages: seeding and echoing. "Seeding," when malicious actors strategically insert deceptions, like fake news, into

2231-515: Is a broad consensus amongst scholars that there is a high degree of disinformation, misinformation, and propaganda online; however, it is unclear to what extent such disinformation has on political attitudes in the public and, therefore, political outcomes. This conventional wisdom has come mostly from investigative journalists, with a particular rise during the 2016 U.S. election: some of the earliest work came from Craig Silverman at Buzzfeed News. Cass Sunstein supported this in #Republic, arguing that

2328-408: Is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. The interpersonal deception theory posits that interpersonal deception is a dynamic, iterative process of mutual influence between a sender, who manipulates information to depart from the truth, and a receiver, who attempts to establish the validity of the message. A deceiver's actions are interrelated to

2425-666: Is a major relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal and distrust. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a negative violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time. If people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between some romantic and relational partners. Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort , or contract law (where it

2522-549: Is a part of executive functions that allows for individuals to monitor and control their behavior through thinking about and managing their actions. The level of executive control that an individual possesses is impacted by development and experience and can be improved through training and practice. Those individuals that show a higher level of executive control can more easily influence/control their thoughts and behaviors in relation to potential threats to an ongoing relationship which can result in paying less attention to threats to

2619-551: Is catfishing. By creating a false identity catfishers deceive those online to build relationships, friendships, or connections without revealing who they truly are as a person. They do so by creating an entirely new account that has made up information allowing them to  portray themselves as a different person. Most lies and misinformation are spread commonly through emails and instant messaging since these messages are erased faster. Without face to face communication, it could be easier to deceive others, making it difficult to detect

2716-436: Is difficult because there are no known completely reliable indicators of deception and because people often reply on a truth-default state. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver. He or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally . Deception and its detection

2813-487: Is intentionally written to mislead readers...[and] users' social engagements with fake news produce data that is big, incomplete, unstructured, and noisy." Facebook, the largest social media company, has been criticized by analytical journalists and scholars for preventing outside research of disinformation. Researchers have criticized the framing of disinformation as being limited to technology platforms, removed from its wider political context and inaccurately implying that

2910-426: Is known as misrepresentation or fraudulent misrepresentation if deliberate), or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud . It also forms a vital part of psychological warfare in denial and deception . Deception includes several types of communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the whole truth. Examples of deception range from false statements to misleading claims in which relevant information

3007-494: Is not harmful to subjects. Christensen's (1988) review of the literature found "that research participants do not perceive that they are harmed and do not seem to mind being misled" (p. 668). Furthermore, those participating in experiments involving deception "reported having enjoyed the experience more and perceived more educational benefit" than those who participated in non-deceptive experiments (p. 668). Lastly, it has also been suggested that an unpleasant treatment used in

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3104-551: Is not of me (is not my follower)". However, there are some exceptions, especially in case of war or peace making or in case of safeguarding one's faith. For an example, Taqiya is an Islamic juridical term for the cases in which a Muslim is allowed to lie under the circumstance when need to deny their faith due to force or when faced with persecution. The concept mainly followed by Shi'ite sect, but it varies "significantly among Islamic sects, scholars, countries, and political regimes", and has been evoked by critics of Islam to portray

3201-504: Is not, usually for the purpose of encouraging an adversary to reveal, endanger, or divert that adversary's own resources ( i.e. , as a decoy ). For example, in World War II , it was common for the Allies to use hollow tanks made out of wood to fool German reconnaissance planes into thinking a large armor unit was on the move in one area while the real tanks were well hidden and on the move in

3298-422: Is often much lower. Unique to exclusive romantic relationships is the use of deception in the form of infidelity. When it comes to the occurrence of infidelity, there are many individual difference factors that can impact this behavior. Infidelity is impacted by attachment style , relationship satisfaction, executive function , sociosexual orientation , personality traits, and gender . Attachment style impacts

3395-433: Is omitted, leading the receiver to infer false conclusions. For example, a claim that " sunflower oil is beneficial to brain health due to the presence of omega-3 fatty acids " may be misleading, as it leads the receiver to believe sunflower oil will benefit brain health more so than other foods. In fact, sunflower oil is relatively low in omega-3 fatty acids and is not particularly good for brain health, so while this claim

3492-404: Is purposefully and intentionally disseminated. " Fake news " has sometimes been categorized as a type of disinformation, but scholars have advised not using these two terms interchangeably or using "fake news" altogether in academic writing since politicians have weaponized it to describe any unfavorable news coverage or information. The English word disinformation comes from the application of

3589-420: Is realized by 'hiding' some of the truths. Military camouflage as a form of visual deception is a part of military deception . Some Allied navies during World War II used dazzle camouflage painting schemes to confuse observers regarding a naval vessel's speed and heading, by breaking up the ship's otherwise obvious silhouette. In nature, the defensive mechanisms of most octopuses to eject black ink in

3686-606: Is subject to debate. Some (like U.S. Department of State ) define propaganda as the use of non-rational arguments to either advance or undermine a political ideal, and use disinformation as an alternative name for undermining propaganda. While others consider them to be separate concepts altogether. One popular distinction holds that disinformation also describes politically motivated messaging designed explicitly to engender public cynicism, uncertainty, apathy, distrust, and paranoia, all of which disincentivize citizen engagement and mobilization for social or political change. Disinformation

3783-872: Is technically true, it leads the receiver to infer false information. Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal or nonverbal messages so that the message receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false. Intent is critical with regard to deception. Intent differentiates between deception and an honest mistake. The Interpersonal Deception Theory explores the interrelation between communicative context and sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges. Some forms of deception include: Buller and Burgoon (1996) have proposed three taxonomies to distinguish motivations for deception based on their Interpersonal Deception Theory: Simulation consists of exhibiting false information. There are three simulation techniques: mimicry (copying another model or example, such as non-poisonous snakes which have

3880-427: Is that controversies provide fertile ground for never-ending debates that solidify points of view. Scholars have pointed out that disinformation is not only a foreign threat as domestic purveyors of disinformation are also leveraging traditional media outlets such as newspapers, radio stations, and television news media to disseminate false information. Current research suggests right-wing online political activists in

3977-428: Is that humans are sensitive to how they appear to others (and to themselves) and this self-consciousness might interfere with or distort from how they actually behave outside of a research context (where they would not feel they were being scrutinized). For example, if a psychologist is interested in learning the conditions under which students cheat on tests, directly asking them, "how often do you cheat?", might result in

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4074-527: Is the label often given to foreign information manipulation and interference (FIMI). Studies on disinformation are often concerned with the content of activity whereas the broader concept of FIMI is more concerned with the "behaviour of an actor" that is described through the military doctrine concept of tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs). Disinformation is primarily carried out by government intelligence agencies , but has also been used by non-governmental organizations and businesses. Front groups are

4171-458: Is true) and intending it to be relied on by the recipient, and the recipient acts to his or her detriment in reliance on it. Deceit may also be grounds for legal action in contract law (known as misrepresentation , or if deliberate, fraudulent misrepresentation ), or a criminal prosecution, on the basis of fraud . The use of deception by a government is typically frowned upon unless it is in reference to military operations. These terms refer to

4268-411: Is unclear if this is a result of socialization processes where it is more acceptable for men to cheat compared to women or due to an actual increase in this behavior for men. Research conducted by Conley and colleagues (2011) suggests that the reasoning behind these gender differences stems from the negative stigma associated with women who engage in casual sex and inferences about the sexual capability of

4365-590: The Brookings Institution proposed amending this framework to include Distribution , defined by the "technical protocols that enable, constrain, and shape user behavior in a virtual space". Similarly, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace proposed adding Degree ("distribution of the content ... and the audiences it reaches") and Effect ("how much of a threat a given case poses"). Whether and to what degree disinformation and propaganda overlap

4462-689: The Internet Research Agency , and she provided testimonies on Russian electoral influence operations for the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence . François holds a master's degree from the Paris Institute of Political Studies and a master's degree in international security from Columbia University in 2013. She worked at Jigsaw , a unit within Google dedicated to exploring threats to open societies. She

4559-535: The Soviet–Afghan War , the CIA put false articles in newspapers of Islamic-majority countries, inaccurately stating that Soviet embassies had "invasion day celebrations". Reuters noted a former U.S. intelligence officer said they would attempt to gain the confidence of reporters and use them as secret agents , to affect a nation's politics by way of their local media. In October 1986, the term gained increased currency in

4656-542: The 1950s defined disinformation as "dissemination (in the press, on the radio, etc.) of false reports intended to mislead public opinion." Disinformation first made an appearance in dictionaries in 1985, specifically, Webster's New College Dictionary and the American Heritage Dictionary . In 1986, the term disinformation was not defined in Webster's New World Thesaurus or New Encyclopædia Britannica . After

4753-466: The 2016 Presidential Elections, online fake news or disinformation probably did not cost Hillary Clinton the votes needed to secure the presidency. Research on this topic remains inconclusive, for example, misinformation appears not to significantly change political knowledge of those exposed to it. There seems to be a higher level of diversity of news sources that users are exposed to on Facebook and Twitter than conventional wisdom would dictate, as well as

4850-809: The English language within the lexicon of politics. By 2001, the term disinformation had come to be known as simply a more civil phrase for saying someone was lying . Stanley B. Cunningham wrote in his 2002 book The Idea of Propaganda that disinformation had become pervasively used as a synonym for propaganda . The Shorenstein Center at Harvard University defines disinformation research as an academic field that studies "the spread and impacts of misinformation, disinformation, and media manipulation," including "how it spreads through online and offline channels, and why people are susceptible to believing bad information, and successful strategies for mitigating its impact" According to

4947-497: The Latin prefix dis- to information making the meaning "reversal or removal of information". The rarely used word had appeared with this usage in print at least as far back as 1887. Some consider it a loan translation of the Russian дезинформация , transliterated as dezinformatsiya , apparently derived from the title of a KGB black propaganda department. Soviet planners in

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5044-634: The Online Disinhibition Theory, a person may not feel the need to censor their communication because of the online environment. This often occurs due to the idea that on the internet, no one can physically know whether the communication one is using is true or not.   This can lead to falsehoods since communication is not occurring face-to-face, making it difficult to perceive the words of other people. Online Disinhibition typically occurs on social media such as group chats or online games. Although not always, people are able to portray themselves as

5141-487: The Russian dezinformatsiya , and began to use similar strategies during the Cold War and in conflict with other nations. The New York Times reported in 2000 that during the CIA's effort to substitute Mohammed Reza Pahlavi for then- Prime Minister of Iran Mohammad Mossadegh , the CIA placed fictitious stories in the local newspaper. Reuters documented how, subsequent to the 1979 Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan during

5238-459: The Soviet term became widely known in the 1980s, native speakers of English broadened the term as "any government communication (either overt or covert) containing intentionally false and misleading material, often combined selectively with true information, which seeks to mislead and manipulate either elites or a mass audience." By 1990, use of the term disinformation had fully established itself in

5335-595: The Substance and Process of Anti-U.S. Disinformation and Propaganda Campaigns (1986); Report on Active Measures and Propaganda, 1986–87 (1987); and Report on Active Measures and Propaganda, 1987–88 (1989). According to a report by Reuters , the United States ran a propaganda campaign to spread disinformation about the Sinovac Chinese COVID-19 vaccine, including using fake social media accounts to spread

5432-503: The U.S. when it was revealed that two months previously, the Reagan Administration had engaged in a disinformation campaign against then-leader of Libya , Muammar Gaddafi . White House representative Larry Speakes said reports of a planned attack on Libya as first broken by The Wall Street Journal on August 25, 1986, were "authoritative", and other newspapers including The Washington Post then wrote articles saying this

5529-459: The United States may be more likely to use disinformation as a strategy and tactic. Governments have responded with a wide range of policies to address concerns about the potential threats that disinformation poses to democracy, however, there is little agreement in elite policy discourse or academic literature as to what it means for disinformation to threaten democracy, and how different policies might help to counter its negative implications. There

5626-408: The average American adult saw fake news stories, "with just over half of those who recalled seeing them believing them"; and 4) people are more likely to "believe stories that favor their preferred candidate, especially if they have ideologically segregated social media networks." Correspondingly, whilst there is wide agreement that the digital spread and uptake of disinformation during the 2016 election

5723-540: The cognitive level. Lying requires deliberate conscious behavior, so listening to speech and watching body language are important factors in detecting lies. If a response to a question has a lot disturbances, less talking time, repeated words, and poor logical structure, then the person may be lying. Vocal cues such as frequency height and variation may also provide meaningful clues to deceit. Fear specifically causes heightened arousal in liars, which manifests in more frequent blinking, pupil dilation, speech disturbances, and

5820-405: The colours and markings of poisonous snakes), fabrication (making up a new model), and distraction (offering an alternative model) In the biological world, mimicry involves unconscious deception by similarity to another organism, or to a natural object. Animals for example may deceive predators or prey by visual , auditory or other means. To make something that appears to be something that it

5917-652: The current relationship (other potential romantic mates). Sociosexual orientation is concerned with how freely individuals partake in casual sex outside of a committed relationship and their beliefs regarding how necessary it is to be in love in order to engage in sex with someone. Individuals with a less restrictive sociosexual orientation (more likely to partake in casual sex) are more likely to engage in infidelity. Individuals that have personality traits including (high) neuroticism, (low) agreeableness, and (low) conscientiousness are more likely to commit infidelity. Men are generally speculated to cheat more than women, but it

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6014-493: The definitions for each term as follows: (1) disinformation is the strategic dissemination of false information with the intention to cause public harm; (2) misinformation represents the unintentional spread of false information; and (3) malinformation is factual information disseminated with the intention to cause harm, these terms are abbreviated 'DMMI'. In 2019, Camille François devised the "ABC" framework of understanding different modalities of online disinformation: In 2020,

6111-406: The dis-informer's reputation. Russian disinformation campaigns have occurred in many countries. For example, disinformation campaigns led by Yevgeny Prigozhin have been reported in several African countries. Russia , however, denies that it uses disinformation to influence public opinion. The United States Intelligence Community appropriated use of the term disinformation in the 1950s from

6208-623: The disinformation that the Sinovac vaccine contained pork-derived ingredients and was therefore haram under Islamic law . Reuters said the ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign was designed to "counter what it perceived as China's growing influence in the Philippines" and was prompted by the "[fear] that China's COVID diplomacy and propaganda could draw other Southeast Asian countries, such as Cambodia and Malaysia, closer to Beijing". The campaign

6305-456: The disinformation was performed out of a motivation of good faith and acceptable according to the rules of war . By this test, the tactic during World War II of putting fake inflatable tanks in visible locations on the Pacific Islands in order to falsely present the impression that there were larger military forces present would be considered as ethically permissible. Conversely, disguising

6402-429: The ethical and methodological issues involved in its use. Dresser (1981) notes that, ethically, researchers are only to use subjects in an experiment after the subject has given informed consent. However, because of its very nature, a researcher conducting a deception experiment cannot reveal its true purpose to the subject, thereby making any consent given by a subject misinformed (p. 3). Baumrind (1964), criticizing

6499-403: The ethical implications in using disinformation as a tactic during information warfare . They note there has been a significant degree of philosophical debate over the issue as related to the ethics of war and use of the technique. The writers describe a position whereby the use of disinformation is occasionally allowed, but not in all situations. Typically the ethical test to consider is whether

6596-852: The exception of physical attributes to appear more attractive. According to the Scientific American, "nine out of ten online daters will fib about their height, weight, or age" such that men were more likely to lie about height while women were more likely to lie about weight. In a study conducted by Toma and Hancock, "less attractive people were found to be more likely to have chosen a profile picture in which they were significantly more attractive than they were in everyday life". Both genders used this strategy in online dating profiles, but women more so than men. Additionally, less attractive people were more likely to have "lied about objective measures of physical attractiveness such as height and weight". In general, men are more likely to lie on dating profiles

6693-445: The faith allowing dishonesty. Deception is a recurring theme in modern philosophy. In 1641 Descartes published his meditations , in which he introduced the notion of the Deus deceptor , a posited being capable of deceiving the thinking ego about reality . The notion was used as part of his hyperbolic doubt , wherein one decides to doubt everything there is to doubt. The Deus deceptor is

6790-413: The financial incentives and monetization of user-generated content and fake news . The lax oversight over the online advertising market can be used to amplify disinformation, including the use of dark money used for political advertising . Deceive Deception is the act of convincing one or many recipients of untrue information. The person creating the deception knows it to be false while

6887-521: The influence of Russian disinformation on Twitter during the 2016 US presidential campaign found that exposure to disinformation was (1) concentrated among a tiny group of users, (2) primarily among Republicans, and (3) eclipsed by exposure to legitimate political news media and politicians. Finally, they find "no evidence of a meaningful relationship between exposure to the Russian foreign influence campaign and changes in attitudes, polarization, or voting behavior." As such, despite its mass dissemination during

6984-451: The internet would become rife with echo chambers and informational cascades of misinformation leading to a highly polarized and ill-informed society. Research after the 2016 election found: (1) for 14 percent of Americans social media was their "most important" source of election news; 2) known false news stories "favoring Trump were shared a total of 30 million times on Facebook, while those favoring Clinton were shared 8 million times"; 3)

7081-527: The judgements of a person and how they interpret non-verbal cues. One's personality can influence these judgements also as some people are more confident in deceiving compared to others. Noted deception scholar Aldert Vrij even states that there is no nonverbal behavior that is uniquely associated with deception. As previously stated, a specific behavioral indicator of deception does not exist. There are, however, some nonverbal behaviors that have been found to be correlated with deception. Vrij found that examining

7178-579: The means by which governments employ deception: Deception is a common topic in religious discussions. Some sources focus on how religious texts deal with deception. But, other sources focus on the deceptions created by the religions themselves. For example, Ryan McKnight is the founder of an organization called FaithLeaks. He stated that the organizations "goal is to reduce the amount of deception and untruths and unethical behaviors that exist in some facets of religion". In general, Islam never allows deception and lie. Prophet Muhammad said, "He who deceives

7275-447: The media landscape was otherwise well-functioning. "The field possesses a simplistic understanding of the effects of media technologies; overemphasizes platforms and underemphasizes politics; focuses too much on the United States and Anglocentric analysis; has a shallow understanding of political culture and culture in general; lacks analysis of race, class, gender, and sexuality as well as status, inequality, social structure, and power; has

7372-475: The message receiver's actions. It is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit. Some research has found that there are some cues that may be correlated with deceptive communication, but scholars frequently disagree about the effectiveness of many of these cues to serve as reliable indicators. A cross cultural study conducted to analyze human behavior and deception concluded detecting deception often has to do with

7469-467: The most activity in terms of active disinformation campaigns. Techniques reported on included the use of bots to amplify hate speech, the illegal harvesting of data, and paid trolls to harass and threaten journalists. Whereas disinformation research focuses primarily on how actors orchestrate deceptions on social media, primarily via fake news , new research investigates how people take what started as deceptions and circulate them as their personal views. As

7566-463: The necessity for preserving the dignity and rights of the research participant" (Christensen, 1988, p. 670). They also note that, in some cases, using deception is the only way to obtain certain kinds of information, and that prohibiting all deception in research would "have the egregious consequence of preventing researchers from carrying out a wide range of important studies" (Kimmel, 1998, p. 805). Additionally, findings suggest that deception

7663-493: The one exception being that women are more likely to lie about weight. People who negotiate feel more tempted to use deceit. In negotiation, it includes both parties to trust and respect one another. In negotiations, one party is unaware of what is going on in the other side of the thing that needs to be negotiated. Deception in negotiation comes in many forms, and each has its reaction (Gaspar et al.,2019). Journalistic deception ranges from passive activities (i.e. blending into

7760-459: The opponent, and then re-raises again in the hopes that the enemy player folds. This strategy works best on opponents who easily fold under pressure. Deception detection is extremely difficult unless it is a blatant or obvious lie or contradicts something the other knows to be true. While it is difficult to deceive a person over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners. Detecting deception

7857-413: The participants about the true nature of the experiment. In an experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram in 1963 the researchers told participants that they would be participating in a scientific study of memory and learning. In reality the study looked at the participants' willingness to obey commands, even when that involved inflicting pain upon another person. After the study, the subjects were informed of

7954-414: The participants may be told that the study has to do with how intuitive they are. During the process, they might be given the opportunity to look at (secretly, they think) another participant's [presumably highly intuitively correct] answers before handing in their own. At the conclusion of this or any research involving deception, all participants must be told of the true nature of the study and why deception

8051-524: The perception of a relationship in a variety of ways, for both the deceiver and the deceived. The deceiver typically perceives less understanding and intimacy from the relationship, in that they see their partner as less empathetic and more distant. The act of deception can also result in feelings of distress for the deceiver, which become worse the longer the deceiver has known the deceived, as well as in longer-term relationships. Once discovered, deception creates feelings of detachment and uneasiness surrounding

8148-487: The person deceived, since lies are typically used to make the other partner feel more positive about the relationship. In general, deception tends to occur less often in relationships with higher satisfaction and commitment levels and in relationships where partners have known each other longer, such as long-term relationships and marriage. In comparison, deception is more likely to occur in casual relationships and in dating where commitment level and length of acquaintanceship

8245-496: The potential sexual partner. In their study, men and women were equally likely to accept a sexual proposal from an individual who was speculated to have a high level of sexual prowess. Additionally, women were just as likely as men to accept a casual sexual proposal when they did not anticipate being subjected to the negative stigma of sexually permissible women as slutty. Research on the use of deception in online dating has shown that people are generally truthful about themselves with

8342-427: The probability of infidelity and research indicates that people with an insecure attachment style (anxious or avoidant) are more likely to cheat compared to individuals with a secure attachment style, especially for avoidant men and anxious women. Insecure attachment styles are characterized by a lack of comfort within a romantic relationship resulting in a desire to be overly independent (avoidant attachment style) or

8439-434: The receiver of the message has a tendency to believe it (although it is not always the case). It is often done for personal gain or advantage. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda and sleight of hand as well as distraction, camouflage or concealment. There is also self-deception . It can also be called, with varying subjective implications, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, or subterfuge. Deception

8536-400: The relationship for both partners; this can eventually lead to both partners becoming more removed from the relationship or deterioration of the relationship. In general, discovery of deception can result in a decrease in relationship satisfaction and commitment level, however, in instances where a person is successfully deceived, relationship satisfaction can actually be positively impacted for

8633-487: The reputation of individual labs and the profession, thus contaminating the participant pool" (p. 806). If the subjects in the experiment are suspicious of the researcher, they are unlikely to behave as they normally would, and the researcher's control of the experiment is then compromised (p. 807). Those who do not object to the use of deception note that there is always a constant struggle in balancing "the need for conducting research that may solve social problems and

8730-428: The speech itself. Streeter, Krauss, Geller, Olson, and Apple (1977) have assessed that fear and anger, two emotions widely associated with deception, cause greater arousal than grief or indifference, and note that the amount of stress one feels is directly related to the frequency of the voice. Camille Fran%C3%A7ois Some of her research focused on individual accounts from people working for troll farms such as

8827-618: The true nature of the study, and steps were taken in order to ensure that the subjects left in a state of well-being. Use of deception raises many problems of research ethics and it is strictly regulated by professional bodies such as the American Psychological Association . Deception occurs not only in real life, but also online. Through mediated communication, a type of communication exchanged through online platforms such as social media and mass media like radios and magazines, deceiving messages can be spread online. With

8924-426: The truth from a lie.  These unreliable cues allow digital deception to easily influence and mislead others. Double bluffing is a deceptive scenario, in which the deceiver tells truth to a person about some subject, but makes the person think that the deceiver is lying. In poker, the term double bluff refers to a situation in which the deceiving player is trying to bluff with bad cards, then gets re-raised by

9021-450: The use of deception in the Milgram (1963) obedience experiment , argues that deception experiments inappropriately take advantage of the implicit trust and obedience given by the subject when the subject volunteers to participate (p. 421). From a practical perspective, there are also methodological objections to deception. Ortmann and Hertwig (1998) note that "deception can strongly affect

9118-540: Was also described as "payback for Beijing's efforts to blame Washington for the pandemic". The campaign primarily targeted people in the Philippines and used a social media hashtag for "China is the virus" in Tagalog . The campaign ran from 2020 to mid-2021. The primary contractor for the U.S. military on the project was General Dynamics IT , which received $ 493 million for its role. Pope Francis condemned disinformation in

9215-501: Was factual. U.S. State Department representative Bernard Kalb resigned from his position in protest over the disinformation campaign, and said: "Faith in the word of America is the pulse beat of our democracy." The executive branch of the Reagan administration kept watch on disinformation campaigns through three yearly publications by the Department of State: Active Measures: A Report on

9312-481: Was massive and very likely facilitated by foreign agents, there is an ongoing debate on whether all this had any actual effect on the election. For example, a double blind randomized-control experiment by researchers from the London School of Economics (LSE), found that exposure to online fake news about either Trump or Clinton had no significant effect on intentions to vote for those candidates. Researchers who examined

9409-508: Was necessary (this is called debriefing). Moreover, it is customary to offer to provide a summary of the results to all participants at the conclusion of the research. Though commonly used and allowed by the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association, there has been debate about whether or not the use of deception should be permitted in psychological research experiments . Those against deception object to

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