112-542: Disa Park is one of the best-known pieces of architecture in the Vredehoek area of Cape Town , South Africa . The towers were built in response to a " white housing crisis" in the city and completed in 1969. The buildings were designed by architectural firm Bergamasco, Duncan & James, which also designed most of the contemporary Catholic churches in Cape Town. Built by the construction company Murray & Roberts in
224-457: A craft , and architecture became the term used to describe the highly formalized and respected aspects of the craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was achieved through trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as results became satisfactory over time. Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Early human settlements were mostly rural . Expanding economies resulted in
336-418: A vimana , where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called shikharas . However, for modern visitors to larger temples the dominating feature is the high gopura or gatehouse at the edge of the compound; large temples have several, dwarfing the vimana; these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features such as the dwarapalakas – twin guardians at
448-561: A "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) and upheld it against modernist and brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms). Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. Moreover, there has been an increased separation of
560-426: A "massive palisade of teak beams held together with iron dowels ". A huge apadana -like hall with eighty sandstone columns shows clear influence from contemporary Achaemenid Persia. The single massive sandstone Pataliputra capital shows clear Hellenistic features, reaching India via Persia. The famous Ashoka columns show great sophistication, and a variety of influences in their details. In both these cases
672-732: A completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed organic architecture , in which
784-421: A criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. Housebuilders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals. Around the beginning of the 20th century, general dissatisfaction with
896-407: A deity is housed in. Around this chamber are other structures and buildings, at times covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara , also called the vimana in the south. The temple may include an ambulatory for parikrama ( circumambulation ), one or more mandapas or congregation halls, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between
1008-610: A dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia , where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. Guard rails —consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. Temples—build on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick and timber. The Indian gateway arches,
1120-410: A fortification wall with bastions in its Jorwe culture period (1400–1000 BC), and had public buildings, such as an elliptical temple and an apsidal temple. It also shows evidence of planning in the layout of rectangular houses, and streets or lanes, and planned streets. The area had risen to 50 hectares in with a population of 10,000 people. A 580-metre (1,900 ft) long protection wall dated 1500 BCE
1232-670: A group of Hindu and Jain temples located in the town of Khajuraho, in the Chhatarpur District of Madhya Pradesh, India. The temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty . Khajuraho is home to 25 sandstone temples in total, although only 20 remain mostly intact. The beautiful carvings on these temples, which show themes from Hindu mythology as well as other facets of everyday life in ancient India, are well-known. Both Hindu and Jain architectural influences may be seen in their design. The temples are split into three groups:
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#17330847944911344-421: A high and curving shikhara over the sanctuary. Dravida or Dravidian architecture is the broad South Indian style, possessing a lower superstructure over the sanctuary. Instead, the structure has a straight profile, rising in a series of terraces to form a decorated pyramid. Today, this is often dwarfed in larger temples by the far larger gopuram outer gateways, a much later development. The ancient term vesara
1456-438: A loop hole in the building restrictions on the mountainside, and built the base below the allowable development line, then built upward , above the line. The residents tend to disagree with the demolitionists; their homes have access to dozens of trails and hikes on their doorstep as well as a tennis court, squash courts, braai area and a swimming pool. The towers also provide an excellent vantage point for scenic views over
1568-430: A mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in passive solar building design , greener roof designs , biodegradable materials, and more attention to
1680-436: A mere instrumentality". Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are Rationalism , Empiricism , Structuralism , Poststructuralism , Deconstruction and Phenomenology . In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability , hence sustainable architecture . To satisfy
1792-428: A new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as models and precedents. Postmodernism produced a style that combined contemporary building technology and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modern styles, from high classical architecture to popular or vernacular regional building styles. Robert Venturi famously defined postmodern architecture as
1904-493: A new style, known as the Indo-Saracenic style. After India's independence , modernist ideas spread among Indian architects as a way of progressing from the colonial culture. Le Corbusier - who designed the city of Chandigarh - influenced a generation of architects towards modernism in the 20th century. The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the urban architecture of India as the country became more integrated with
2016-622: A now-vanished Indian predecessor tradition in wood is likely. Such a tradition is extremely clear in the case of the earliest-known examples of rock-cut architecture , the state-sponsored Barabar caves in Bihar , personally dedicated by Ashoka circa 250 BCE. The entrance of the Lomas Rishi Cave there has a sculpted doorway that clearly copies a wooden style in stone, which is a recurrent feature of rock-cut caves for some time. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical proficiency,
2128-586: A number of broad models of Guptan-style temples, however, the most common plan exemplifies small but massively built stone prostyle buildings with a sanctuary and a columned porch, apparent at Tigawa and Sanchi Temple 17 and continued today. Both temples have flat roofs over the sanctuary, which would become uncommon by about the 8th century, as seen in the design of the Mahabodhi Temple , Bhitargaon, Deogarh and Gop, with high superstructures of different shapes. The Chejarla Kapoteswara temple further demonstrates
2240-422: A peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūṭina type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at
2352-616: A school in its own right and a later development of expressionist architecture . Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects like Charles Moore in the United States, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Norway, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Vittorio Gregotti , Michele Valori , Bruno Zevi in Italy, who collectively popularized an interest in
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#17330847944912464-634: A structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings that seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques. The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this. Concurrently,
2576-619: Is Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganga region and Jhusi near the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, both dating to around the 7th millennium BCE. The Indus Valley civilization covered a large area around and beyond the Indus River basin in the late Bronze Age of India . In its mature phase, from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, the civilization developed several cities marked by great uniformity within and between sites, including Harappa , Lothal , and
2688-557: Is also used to describe a temple style with characteristics of both the northern and southern traditions. These attributes come from the Deccan and other fairly central parts of India. Although disagreement stands on the exact period and styles that vesara represents, the term is mainly assigned to the northern tradition, but are regarded as a kind of northern dravida by others. Excluding earlier structures in timber-based architecture, hardly any remains of Nagara Hindu temples exist from before
2800-437: Is common for professionals in all these disciplines to practice urban design. In more recent times different sub-subfields of urban design have emerged such as strategic urban design, landscape urbanism , water-sensitive urban design , and sustainable urbanism . Indian architecture Indian architecture is rooted in the history , culture , and religion of India . Among several architectural styles and traditions,
2912-501: Is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture". Le Corbusier's contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe is said to have stated in a 1959 interview that "architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. There it begins." The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers , Louis Sullivan , promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: " Form follows function ". While
3024-645: Is divided into the Dravidian style of southern India and the Nagara style of northern India , with other regional styles. Housing styles also vary between regions, depending on climate. The first major Islamic kingdom in India was the Delhi Sultanate , which led to the development of Indo-Islamic architecture , combining Indian and Islamic features. The rule of the Mughal Empire , when Mughal architecture evolved,
3136-426: Is often part of sustainable architecture practices, conserving resources through "recycling" a structure by adaptive redesign. Generally referred to as the spatial art of environmental design, form and practice, interior architecture is the process through which the interiors of buildings are designed, concerned with all aspects of the human uses of structural spaces. Urban design is the process of designing and shaping
3248-550: Is regarded as the zenith of Indo-Islamic architecture, with the Taj Mahal being the high point of their contribution. Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the Rajput and Sikh styles as well. During the British colonial period , European styles including Neoclassical , Gothic Revival , and Baroque became prevalent across India. The amalgamation of Indo-Islamic and European styles led to
3360-606: Is the Hindu temple architecture , which developed from around the 5th century CE, is in theory governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras , and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape . Also, the grandest houses were relatively lightweight structures mainly using wood until recent times, and there are few survivals of great age. Buddhism
3472-520: Is the 1st century AD treatise De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius , according to whom a good building embodies firmitas, utilitas , and venustas (durability, utility, and beauty). Centuries later, Leon Battista Alberti developed his ideas further, seeing beauty as an objective quality of buildings to be found in their proportions. In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that " form follows function ". "Function" began to replace
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3584-509: Is the design of commercial buildings that serves the needs of businesses, the government and religious institutions. Industrial architecture is the design of specialized industrial buildings, whose primary focus is designing buildings that can fulfil their function while ensuring the safe movement of labor and goods in the facility. Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves
3696-757: Is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire in the region historically known as Karnata , today's Karnataka , India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries. Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur , the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu , and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura . Other examples of fine Hoysala craftmanship are
3808-767: Is used exclusively as the building material, but a few sites, such as Dholavira , are in stone. Most houses have two storeys, and uniform sizes and plans. The large cities declined relatively quickly, for unknown reasons, so a less sophisticated village culture was left behind. After the collapse of the Mature Harappan Period, some cities still remained urban and inhabited. Sites like Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, Kudwala (38.1 ha) in Cholistan, and Daimabad (20 Ha) in Maharashtra are considered urban. Daimabad (2000–1000 BC), developed
3920-573: The Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha or War over the Buddha's relics . These views of ancient Indian cities are relied on for the understanding of ancient Indian urban architecture. In the case of the Mauryan capital Pataliputra (near Patna ), we have Greek accounts, and that of Faxian ; Megasthenes (a visitor around 300 BCE) mentions 564 towers and 64 gates in the city walls. Modern excavations have uncovered
4032-581: The torana , reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE). Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200 to 400 CE. Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place. Cave temples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as
4144-520: The Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 12 urns containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, husks, grains of charred rice and Neolithic celts, confirming the presence of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago. The unearthed local and foreign antiquities (of art, architecture, customs, and rituals) depicted by the engravings on pottery and other artifacts, indicate that the prehistoric people of
4256-502: The Burzahom established contact with Central Asia and South West Asia , and had links to the Gangetic plains and peninsular India . Megalithic burial sites have been found scattered all over the subcontinent. The Neolithic period lasted up until 3300 BCE, overlapping with the following Early Harappan (Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age) period. One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India
4368-510: The Gupta dynasty in the 4th century CE. The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves are among the most important early sites. The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Sanchi . By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence, such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from around 424, that towering temples predated
4480-515: The Malaprabha basin. The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present-day Maharashtra . It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora . The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of
4592-480: The Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents. The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals . From about 900 onward,
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4704-573: The South Indian temple style is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India and in Sri Lanka, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century. It is seen in Hindu temples , and the most distinctive difference from north Indian styles is the use of a shorter and more pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called
4816-497: The UNESCO World Heritage Site Mohenjo-daro . The civic and town planning and the engineering of these cities are deemed remarkable, but the building designs are "of a startling utilitarian character". There are granaries , drains, water-courses and tanks, but neither palaces nor temples have been identified, though cities have a central raised and fortified "citadel". Mohenjo-daro has wells which may be
4928-912: The complex at Khajuraho —were constructed in Central India . Examples include the Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar in Odisha , Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha, Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu . Indian traders brought Indian architecture to South East Asia through various trade routes . Styles called vesara include the early Badami Chalukya Architecture , Western Chalukya architecture , and finally Hoysala architecture . Other regional styles include those of Bengal , Kashmir and other Himalayan areas, Karnataka , Kalinga architecture , and Māru-Gurjara architecture . Hoysala architecture
5040-501: The deccan . The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya , Hoysala , Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past. The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (maṇḍapa or maṇṭapam), enclosed by
5152-412: The 'design' architect from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability. The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be
5264-461: The 1960s, these three 17 story, cylindrical towers , called Blinkwater, Platteklip and Silverstroom, are nestled on the slopes of Table Mountain , and are almost universally proclaimed to be a blemish on the face of the majestic mountain. The three towers are popularly known to Capetonians as "The Pepper Pots", "Toilet Rolls" and "Tampon Towers". It has 287 apartment units providing enough housing for roughly 1,000 residents. Murray & Roberts found
5376-528: The 5th century Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa (early 5th century), Sanchi Temple 17 (similar, but respectively Hindu and Buddhist), Deogarh, Parvati Temple, Nachna (465), Bhitargaon , the largest Gupta brick temple to survive, and Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625). Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator. There are
5488-564: The 5th or 6th centuries. The Gupta period chiefly represented a hiatus in Indian rock-cut architecture ; the first wave of construction was completed before the empire was assembled, and the second wave began in the late 5th century, after its end. For example, an early group of the Ajanta Caves was crafted by 220 CE and a later group was made around 460 CE. Nonetheless, most of the first surviving free-standing structures in India are accredited to
5600-556: The 6th or 7th century, and they were made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived. Early North Indian temples that have survived after the 5th century Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include, Deogarh , Parvati Temple, Nachna (465 CE), Lalitpur District (c. 525), Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625 CE); Rajiv Lochan temple , and Rajim (7th-century CE). Pre-7th century CE South Indian style stone temples have not survived. However, early South Indian temples that have survived, though in ruins, include
5712-452: The 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions, as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. In the north, Muslim invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones. The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected
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#17330847944915824-730: The 7th century CE, most key features of the Hindu temple were established in theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods. Three styles of temple were identified: nagara , dravida and vesara . The styles were sometimes mixed, and not yet associated with specific regions in India. For example, in Karnataka , the group of 7th and 8th-century temples at Pattadakal famously mixes forms later associated with both north and south, as does that at Aihole , which still includes apsidal chaitya hall -type plans. Nagara commonly refers to North Indian temple styles, most easily recognised by
5936-658: The 7th century, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium , but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, Turkey, North Africa, the Indian Sub-continent and in parts of Europe, such as Spain, Albania, and the Balkan States, as the result of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire . In Europe during
6048-645: The Gupta period, in particular, the beginnings of Hindu temple architecture . As Milo Beach writes, "Under the Guptas, India was quick to join the rest of the medieval world in a passion for housing precious objects in stylized architectural frameworks", the "precious objects" primarily suggesting the icons of gods. The caves at Ajanta , including Elephanta and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, mixed, and Jain) were produced under other dynasties in Central India. Ellora
6160-554: The Nagara style. North Indian temples showed increased elevation of the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th century. On the shikara, the oldest form, called latina , with wide shallow projections running up the sides, developed alternative forms with many smaller "spirelets" ( urushringa ). Two varieties of these are called sekhari , where the sub-spires extend vertically, and bhumija , where individual sub-spires are arrayed in rows and columns. Richly decorated temples—including
6272-645: The Western group, the Eastern group, and the Southern group. The Western group has the greatest popularity and draws the most tourists. The Khajuraho Temples were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986, and they continue to be a popular tourist attraction in India. According to UNESCO, the Khajuraho Temples "are a masterpiece of Indian art, with their unique architecture and stunning sculptures. Dravidian style or
6384-533: The aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication , at the very least. On the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction , the renowned 20th-century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that
6496-573: The architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti , who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De re aedificatoria , saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealized human figure, the Golden mean . The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, and
6608-411: The architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis – the apex – of art, craft, and technology. When modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I , pioneering modernist architects sought to develop
6720-561: The art of building in India in south and central India. From 300 BCE – 300 CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the early Chola , Chera and the Pandyan kingdoms included brick shrines to deities Kartikeya , Shiva , Amman and Vishnu . Several of these have been unearthed near Adichanallur , Kaveripoompuharpattinam and Mahabalipuram , and the construction plans of these sites of worship were shared to some detail in various poems of Sangam literature . The architecture of
6832-522: The best-known include the many varieties of Hindu temple architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture , especially Rajput architecture , Mughal architecture , South Indian architecture , and Indo-Saracenic architecture . Early Indian architecture was made from wood, which did not survive due to rotting and instability in the structures. Instead, the earliest existing architecture are made with Indian rock-cut architecture , including many Buddhist , Hindu , and Jain temples. The Hindu temple architecture
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#17330847944916944-474: The caves at Ajanta and Ellora . A very important development, the emergence of the shikara or temple tower, is today best evidenced by the Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple . This was already several centuries old when the first very vertical structure replaced an Ashokan original, apparently around 150–200 CE. The current brick-built tower, probably a good deal larger, dates to the Gupta period, in
7056-441: The classical "utility" and was understood to include not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological, and cultural dimensions. The idea of sustainable architecture was introduced in the late 20th century. Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to successful replication. Ancient urban architecture was preoccupied with building religious structures and buildings symbolizing
7168-504: The constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural , and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in their architecture to symbolically represent the political power of the ruler or the state itself. The architecture and urbanism of classical civilizations such as the Greek and Roman civilizations evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones. New building types emerged and architectural style developed in
7280-647: The contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon the natural environment for heating, ventilation and cooling , water use , waste products and lighting . Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (e.g. shelter, security, and worship) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became
7392-419: The continuance of free-standing chaitya -hall temples with barrel roofs, with many smaller wooden examples. Whereas the visible stylistic forms of the temple vary greatly and have a complicated development, the basic elements of a Hindu temple remain the same across all periods and styles. The most essential feature is the inner sanctuary, the garbhagriha or "womb-chamber", where the primary murti of
7504-793: The creation of proto-cities or urban areas , which in some cases grew and evolved very rapidly, such as Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan . Neolithic archaeological sites include Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük in Turkey, Jericho in the Levant, Mehrgarh in Pakistan, Skara Brae in Orkney , and Cucuteni-Trypillian culture settlements in Romania , Moldova and Ukraine . In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia , architecture and urbanism reflected
7616-605: The death of the Buddha , around 400 BCE. This first generation of monasteries only survive in floor-plans, notably the Jivakarama vihara in Bihar . Important features of the period's architecture include, walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings, wooden chaitya arches for roofs, and further structures above solid storeys. The reliefs of Sanchi , dated to the 1st centuries BCE-CE, denote places such as Kushinagar or Rajagriha as splendid walled cities, as in
7728-500: The decorative richness of historical styles. As the first generation of modernists began to die after World War II , the second generation of architects including Paul Rudolph , Marcel Breuer , and Eero Saarinen tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism , buildings with expressive sculpture façades made of unfinished concrete. But an even younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and Brutalism for being too austere, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account
7840-514: The design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism have been criticized by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create livable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences. Environmental sustainability has become
7952-653: The diverse styles at Mahabalipuram , from the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a developed "Tamil Architecture" (South Indian) order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existing in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built. Other examples are found in Aihole and Pattadakal . From between about
8064-587: The emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund , formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar , Germany in 1919, redefined
8176-609: The extremely hard granite rock being cut in geometrical fashion and given the Mauryan polish , also found on sculpture. Later rock-cut viharas , occupied by monastic communities, survive, mostly in Western India, and in Bengal the floor-plans of brick-built equivalents survive. The elaborately decorated facades and "chaitya halls" of many rock-cut sites are believed to reflect vanished free-standing buildings elsewhere. The Buddhist stupa ,
8288-416: The first handbook that emphasized the practical rather than the theoretical aspects of architecture, and it was the first to catalog the five orders. In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the title suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture , Pugin believed,
8400-412: The form of the classical orders . Roman architecture was influenced by Greek architecture as they incorporated many Greek elements into their building practices. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times—these texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of Vitruvius in the 1st century BC. Some of
8512-462: The form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House and Fallingwater . Architects such as Mies van der Rohe , Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating
8624-450: The functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values , architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.... To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into
8736-409: The garbhagriha and mandapa. Larger temples may include more shrines or buildings, either connected together or detached, with smaller temples in the compound. The entire temple compound is usually enclosed by a wall, and at times, raised on a plinth ( adhiṣṭhāna ). Large areas of the structure are often decorated with carving, including figurative images of deities and other religious figures. By
8848-415: The hallmark of the ultra modern urban life in many countries surfaced even in developing countries like Nigeria where international styles had been represented since the mid 20th Century mostly because of the leanings of foreign-trained architects. Residential architecture is the design of functional fits the user's lifestyle while adhering to the building codes and zoning laws. Commercial architecture
8960-423: The main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha . Mayamata and Manasara shilpa texts estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century, is a guidebook on Dravidian style of Vastu Shastra design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another text from the 9th century describing
9072-586: The many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became
9184-521: The material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art . Historical civilisations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. The practice, which began in the prehistoric era , has been used as a way of expressing culture by civilizations on all seven continents . For this reason, architecture is considered to be a form of art . Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. The earliest surviving text on architectural theories
9296-602: The most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious. Asian architecture developed differently compared to Europe, and the Buddhist , Hindu and Sikh architectural styles have different characteristics. Unlike Indian and Chinese architecture , which had great influence on the surrounding regions, Japanese architecture did not. Some Asian architecture showed great regional diversity, in particular Buddhist architecture . Moreover, other architectural achievements in Asia
9408-552: The movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic. Also, a significant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous fortifications across the continent. From the Balkans to Spain, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings represent an important part of European heritage. In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there
9520-516: The nature of architecture and whether or not architecture is distinguished from building. The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD. According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas , commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity and delight . An equivalent in modern English would be: According to Vitruvius,
9632-640: The new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution , including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. Fazlur Rahman Khan 's development of the tube structure was a technological break-through in building ever higher. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style , an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center designed by Minoru Yamasaki . Many architects resisted modernism , finding it devoid of
9744-540: The northwest ( Kashmir ), east ( Bihar and Odisha ), south ( Karnataka , Tamil Nadu , and Andhra Pradesh ), and the northeastern frontier ( Meghalaya ) of India. The earliest clear evidence of the megalithic urn burials, discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, date back to 1000 BCE. The most notable megalithic urn was discovered in Adichanallur , 24 kilometres (15 mi) from Tirunelveli , where archaeologists from
9856-497: The notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural. Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond
9968-683: The period (1336–1565) was a notable building style evolved by the Vijayanagar empire that ruled most of South India from their capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka . The architecture of the temples built during the reign of the Vijayanagara empire had elements of political authority. This resulted in the creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture which featured prominently not only in temples but also in administrative structures across
10080-583: The physical features of cities, towns, and villages. In contrast to architecture, which focuses on the design of individual buildings, urban design deals with the larger scale of groups of buildings, streets and public spaces, whole neighborhoods and districts, and entire cities, with the goal of making urban areas functional, attractive, and sustainable. Urban design is an interdisciplinary field that uses elements of many built environment professions, including landscape architecture , urban planning , architecture, civil engineering and municipal engineering . It
10192-544: The political power of rulers until Greek and Roman architecture shifted focus to civic virtues. Indian and Chinese architecture influenced forms all over Asia and Buddhist architecture in particular took diverse local flavors. During the Middle Ages , pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name. Later,
10304-663: The predecessors of the stepwell . As many as 700 wells have been discovered in just one section of the city, leading scholars to believe that 'cylindrical brick lined wells' were invented by the Indus Valley Civilization. Architectural decoration is extremely minimal, though there are "narrow pointed niches" inside some buildings. Most of the art found is in miniature forms like seals, and mainly in terracotta , but there are very few larger sculptures of figures. In most sites, fired mud-brick (not sun-baked as in Mesopotamia )
10416-421: The profession of landscape architecture is called a landscape architect . Interior architecture is the design of a space which has been created by structural boundaries and the human interaction within these boundaries. It can also be the initial design and plan for use, then later redesigned to accommodate a changed purpose, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell. The latter
10528-453: The recent movements of New Urbanism , Metaphoric architecture , Complementary architecture and New Classical architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates and develops smart growth , architectural tradition and classical design . This in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl . Glass curtain walls, which were
10640-637: The region, but dominate views of Table Mountain from below. Architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning , designing , and constructing buildings or other structures . The term comes from Latin architectura ; from Ancient Greek ἀρχιτέκτων ( arkhitéktōn ) 'architect'; from ἀρχι- ( arkhi- ) 'chief' and τέκτων ( téktōn ) 'creator'. Architectural works, in
10752-512: The related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference. A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering, which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist. The emerging knowledge in scientific fields and
10864-469: The richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places and cultures. One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of metaphoric architecture , which includes such things as bio morphism and zoomorphic architecture , both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design. While it is considered by some to be merely an aspect of postmodernism , others consider it to be
10976-433: The rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by
11088-795: The rock-cut temples , particularly the rathas , became a model for south Indian temples. Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South India . Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram. The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami , Karnataka in the period 543–753 and spawned the Vesara style called Badami Chalukya Architecture . The finest examples of their art are seen in Pattadakal , Aihole and Badami in northern Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain in
11200-604: The roles of architects and engineers became separated. Modern architecture began after World War I as an avant-garde movement that sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures. Many architects became disillusioned with modernism which they perceived as ahistorical and anti-aesthetic, and postmodern and contemporary architecture developed. Over
11312-572: The systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope of the profession includes landscape design ; site planning ; stormwater management ; environmental restoration ; parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; green infrastructure planning and provision; and private estate and residence landscape master planning and design; all at varying scales of design, planning and management. A practitioner in
11424-548: The temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana , Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings. These projects spread into South India from the Deccan . The architectural style used was partly Dravidian. They do not contain any of the shikharas common to the Nagara style and were built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. Vijayanagara architecture of
11536-462: The temples at Belavadi , Amrithapura , and Nuggehalli . Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct. A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are proposed UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Approximately 100 Hoysala temples survive today. The Khajuraho Temples are
11648-538: The temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north. In the late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse actually a late development, from the 12th century or later, typically added to older large temples. The recently constructed Ram Mandir in Ayodhya is constructed as per
11760-548: The world's economy. Traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential in India's architecture in the contemporary era. In South India, the Neolithic began in 6500 BCE and lasted till around 1400 BCE when the Megalithic transition period began. The South Indian neolithic period is characterized by ash mounds from 2500 BCE in the region of Karnataka , which later expanded into Tamil Nadu . Neolithic settlements have been found in
11872-497: The years, the field of architectural construction has branched out to include everything from ship design to interior decorating. Architecture can mean: The philosophy of architecture is a branch of philosophy of art , dealing with aesthetic value of architecture, its semantics and in relation with development of culture . Many philosophers and theoreticians from Plato to Michel Foucault , Gilles Deleuze , Robert Venturi and Ludwig Wittgenstein have concerned themselves with
11984-498: Was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the development of Renaissance humanism , which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti , Michelangelo , Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between artist , architect and engineer , or any of
12096-510: Was associated with a move to stone and brick religious structures, probably beginning as rock-cut architecture , which has often survived very well. Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries BC; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India; Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka and Araniko of Nepal . Islamic architecture began in
12208-641: Was based on universal, recognizable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Giorgio Vasari . By the 18th century, his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish, and English. In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist Sebastiano Serlio wrote Tutte L'Opere D'Architettura et Prospetiva ( Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective ). This treatise exerted immense influence throughout Europe, being
12320-480: Was found at Bet Dwarka which was believed to be damaged and submerged following a sea storm. Indian architecture after the Indus Valley Civilization around the Maurya Empire , from 322 to 185 BCE, most likely used wood or recycled brick. Much of the remains discovered from this period onwards are of Indian rock-cut architecture , predominantly Buddhist. The construction of Buddhist monastic buildings began before
12432-536: Was made after the Gupta period, yet they primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. The Ajanta Caves contain the most significant and mature survivals of painting and the periods, mainly in palace paintings. The Hindu Udayagiri Caves record connections with the dynasty and its ministers, and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh , one of the earliest to survive, showcases important sculpture. North Indian Hindu temples that have survived after
12544-404: Was the only "true Christian form of architecture." The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin , in his Seven Lamps of Architecture , published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure". For Ruskin,
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