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171-457: DI relies on a systematic and scripted curriculum, delivered by highly trained instructors. On the premise that all students can learn and all teachers successfully teach if given effective training in specific techniques, teachers may be evaluated based on measurable student learning. In some special education programs, direct instruction is used in resource rooms when teachers assist with homework completion and academic remediation. DISTAR

342-413: A set of essential features common to all. Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that the term "education" is context-dependent. Evaluative or thick conceptions of education assert that it is inherent in the nature of education to lead to some form of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which offer a value-neutral explanation. Some theorists provide

513-420: A "group" score. Thus, the group scores of FT students were compared to the group scores of NFT students. An important—and later controversial—statistical adjustment technique was employed by the evaluators in order to "improve the integrity of the results". Because there were differences between treatment and comparison groups (e.g. the average score on an outcome measure for a NFT group might have been higher than

684-562: A bachelor's degree. Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education and often involves independent research, normally in the form of a master's thesis. Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation . More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation . Successful completion of formal education typically leads to certification,

855-451: A balance of positive and negative feedback through praise and constructive criticism. Intelligence significantly influences individuals' responses to education. It is a cognitive trait associated with the capacity to learn from experience, comprehend, and apply knowledge and skills to solve problems. Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics typically perform better academically and pursue higher levels of education. Intelligence

1026-504: A certain fact is either consistent with the researcher's internal values or against them. What results is a difficult choice: the researcher must either reject the fact, or modify his or her value to accommodate the fact. Campbell also believed, according to House, that values—as opposed to facts—could be chosen rationally. House agrees with Campbell's assertion in part, but departs from Campbell in that he believes that facts and values cannot exist in isolation; rather, they "blend together in

1197-455: A chief architect of the DI program, finds a "mean effect size average per study...(as) more than .75, which confirms that the overall effect is substantial." A 2018 meta-analysis by Stockard et al. found an average effect on test scores of approximately 0.6 standard deviations. In some special education programs, it is used in a resource room with small groups of students. Some research has shown there

1368-885: A child's ethnicity. Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education as societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and women. Education traditionally favored men, who were tasked with providing for the family, while women were expected to manage households and care for children, often limiting their access to education. Although these disparities have improved in many modern societies, gender differences persist in education . This includes biases and stereotypes related to gender roles in various academic domains, notably in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which are often portrayed as male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female students from pursuing these subjects. In various instances, discrimination based on gender and social factors occurs openly as part of official educational policies, such as

1539-429: A comprehensive and well-rounded education, while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to

1710-404: A controlled experiment has long been recognized as a goal worth pursuing in the social and behavioral sciences for the same obvious reason that made this mode of inquiry the predominant research strategy of the natural and physical sciences: the controlled experiment permits the most unequivocal assessment of a variable's influence on another variable". Particularly when experimentation is used as

1881-413: A day. The instructional periods focused on language, reading, and math. The children showed vast improvement, which led to further development of the approach. When further developing DI, they applied the same principles to create a formal instructional program that included language, reading, and math. The formal program was termed DISTAR, for Direct Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading. In

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2052-542: A delay in implementation could be disastrous to the program. Another reality was simply the lack of alternate interventions. Because such a large-scale experiment in education had never been done before, the Office of Education had no arsenal of interventions to try out. Selection of Follow Through implementation sites proceeded in concert with the selection of models. With the assistance of various state and federal education agencies, 100 communities were invited to apply to

2223-511: A descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language . Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, define what constitutes good education or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive conceptions view education as an endeavor that strives to achieve specific objectives , which may encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to think rationally , and cultivating character traits such as kindness and honesty. Various scholars emphasize

2394-498: A direct effect on the implementation of a model. More problematic, however, is Elmore's and Hill's assertions that the Follow Through models interfered with local teaching methods and practices. As Elmore writes, "for Follow Through , the problem was how to implement program variations in a system where most day-to-day decisions about program content are made at the school or classroom level". Rhine et al. suggest that it

2565-551: A dish together. Some theorists differentiate between the three types based on the learning environment: formal education occurs within schools , non-formal education takes place in settings not regularly frequented, such as museums, and informal education unfolds in the context of everyday routines. Additionally, there are disparities in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be propelled by extrinsic motivation , driven by external rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal education, intrinsic motivation, stemming from

2736-470: A federal program in education that possesses both service delivery and research and development objectives. Rivlin et al. point out that "the byzantine complexity of the public policymaking process makes the conduct of social experiments extremely difficult". Given the reduction in funding, the decision to engage in an effort to evaluate the effectiveness of various interventions in an empirical experiment appears appropriate and straightforward. However, if

2907-495: A hierarchical structure, with the attainment of earlier levels serving as a prerequisite for higher ones. Short-cycle tertiary education concentrates on practical aspects, providing advanced vocational and professional training tailored to specialized professions. Bachelor's level education, also known as undergraduate education , is typically longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is commonly offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary academic credential known as

3078-481: A long-term benefit. Wisler et al. , in their review of the Follow Through experience, wrote that it was likely that no other educational data has been examined more extensively, excepting the Equality of Educational Opportunity Survey. At least three major reevaluations of the Follow Through data exist in the literature: House, et al. (1978); Bereiter and Kurland (1981); and Kennedy (1981). All largely confirm

3249-696: A low cost. Conversely, in nations like the United States and Singapore, tertiary education often comes with high tuition fees , leading students to rely on substantial loans to finance their studies. High education costs can pose a significant barrier for students in developing countries , as their families may struggle to cover school fees, purchase uniforms, and buy textbooks. The academic literature explores various types of education, including traditional and alternative approaches. Traditional education encompasses long-standing and conventional schooling methods, characterized by teacher-centered instruction within

3420-542: A mixture of empirical and holistic criteria. NDN was responsible for disseminating the results based on the recommendations of JDRP. Watkins (1997) criticizes the dissemination criteria for two reasons. First, the organizations identified programs for dissemination that had not been part of the Follow Through experiment and for which there was no empirical validation. Second, JDRP and NDN endorsed programs that showed improvement in areas "such as self-concept, attitude, and mental or physical health (of students) ... (or) if it has

3591-540: A more inclusive and emotionally supportive environment. This category encompasses various forms, such as charter schools and specialized programs catering to challenging or exceptionally talented students, alongside homeschooling and unschooling . Alternative education incorporates diverse educational philosophies, including Montessori schools , Waldorf education , Round Square schools , Escuela Nueva schools , free schools, and democratic schools . Alternative education encompasses indigenous education , which emphasizes

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3762-603: A more individual level, education fosters personal development , encompassing learning new skills, honing talents , nurturing creativity , enhancing self-knowledge , and refining problem-solving and decision-making abilities. Moreover, education contributes positively to health and well-being. Educated individuals are often better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior accordingly, benefit from stronger social support networks and coping strategies , and enjoy higher incomes, granting them access to superior healthcare services . The social significance of education

3933-706: A more sustainable and equitable world. Thus, education not only serves to maintain societal norms but also acts as a catalyst for social development . This extends to evolving economic circumstances, where technological advancements, notably increased automation , impose new demands on the workforce that education can help meet. As circumstances evolve, skills and knowledge taught may become outdated, necessitating curriculum adjustments to include subjects like digital literacy , and promote proficiency in handling new technologies. Moreover, education can embrace innovative forms such as massive open online courses to prepare individuals for emerging challenges and opportunities. On

4104-410: A pivotal role in democracies by enhancing civic participation through voting and organizing, while also promoting equal opportunities for all. On an economic level, individuals become productive members of society through education, acquiring the technical and analytical skills necessary for their professions, as well as for producing goods and providing services to others. In early societies, there

4275-438: A pivotal role in equipping a country to adapt to changes and effectively confront new challenges. It raises awareness and contributes to addressing contemporary global issues , including climate change , sustainability , and the widening disparities between the rich and the poor. By instilling in students an understanding of how their lives and actions impact others, education can inspire individuals to strive towards realizing

4446-1379: A pivotal role in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their impact. Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just income , including financial security , social status , social class , and various attributes related to quality of life . Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways. It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory, as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering their development. Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in educational materials such as stimulating toys, books, and computers. Financial constraints may also prevent attendance at prestigious schools, leading to enrollment in institutions located in economically disadvantaged areas. Such schools often face challenges such as teacher shortages and inadequate educational materials and facilities like libraries, resulting in lower teaching standards. Moreover, parents may be unable to afford private lessons for children falling behind academically. In some cases, students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are compelled to drop out of school to contribute to family income. Limited access to information about higher education and challenges in securing and repaying student loans further exacerbate

4617-484: A positive impact on individuals other than students, for example if it results in improved instructional behavior of teachers" (p. 47), but did not raise students' academic achievement. Thus, programs "that had been incapable of demonstrating improved academic performance in the Follow Through evaluation" were recommended for adoption by schools and districts. Watkins cites the former Commissioner of Education, Ernest Boyer, who wrote with dismay that "Since only one of

4788-511: A prerequisite for advancing to higher levels of education and entering certain professions . Undetected cheating during exams, such as utilizing a cheat sheet , poses a threat to this system by potentially certifying unqualified students. In most countries, primary and secondary education is provided free of charge. However, there are significant global disparities in the cost of tertiary education. Some countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at

4959-512: A social action program, the decision to transform Follow Through from a social action program to a social experiment was not correspondingly changed in the congressional legislation. Head Start personnel remained involved in the design and implementation of Follow Through , although it appeared they were working at separate ends from the planning group of the OEO, who viewed Follow Through as an empirical investigation. Much of what occurred during

5130-462: A social or scientific program? After an initial period, new regulations mandated that 80 percent of Follow Through funding was to be allocated to the provision of service while 20 percent was to be used for knowledge production. The regulations themselves suggest that Follow Through was principally "a federally funded education program which contained a built-in research component". An inevitable conflict exists when one attempts to operationalize

5301-453: A specific distinction between on-task and off-task behavior: instruction is arranged so that students are fully engaged in learning (via frequent checking for understanding and praises by the teacher) the majority of the time. According to the program sponsors, anything presumed to be learned by students must first be taught by the teacher. Bank Street model . The Bank Street model was developed by Elizabeth Gilkerson and Herbert Zimiles of

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5472-701: A stable society by imparting fundamental skills necessary for interacting with the environment and fulfilling individual needs and aspirations. In contemporary society, these skills encompass speaking, reading, writing, arithmetic , and proficiency in information and communications technology . Additionally, education facilitates socialization by instilling awareness of dominant social and cultural norms , shaping appropriate behavior across diverse contexts. It fosters social cohesion , stability, and peace, fostering productive engagement in daily activities. While socialization occurs throughout life, early childhood education holds particular significance. Moreover, education plays

5643-540: A structured school environment. Regulations govern various aspects, such as the curriculum and class schedules. Alternative education serves as an umbrella term for schooling methods that diverge from the conventional traditional approach. These variances might encompass differences in the learning environment, curriculum content, or the dynamics of the teacher-student relationship. Characteristics of alternative schooling include voluntary enrollment, relatively modest class and school sizes, and customized instruction, fostering

5814-399: A substantial number of students. At its height, the program would grow to encompass 20 different sponsored interventions and approximately 352,000 Follow Through and comparison children in 178 projects nationwide. In addition to identifying the most effective instructional practices and disseminating them to schools and districts, it was also hoped that Follow Through would help reduce

5985-504: A tiered model system to address students with developing problems. The findings from Project Follow Through , conducted in a variety of selected communities throughout the United States, suggest that Direct Instruction is the most effective model for teaching academic skills and for affective outcomes (e.g. self-esteem ) of children. Recent large-scale studies (1997–2003), such as the Baltimore Curriculum Project, show that it

6156-448: A tool for informing policy decisions (e.g., in recommending the efficacy of some instructional approaches with disadvantaged students over other, less effective interventions), the design should be of the highest degree of rigor possible. For a variety of reasons, Follow Through did not have the classic characteristics of a true experiment. Lack of systematic selection of interventions and lack of specificity of treatment effects . Due to

6327-413: A true empirical investigation that would determine the most effective models. Conversely, CAP and Head Start personnel advising the Follow Through planners viewed it as a social program. Thus, "neither set of constituent groups was fully satisfied with this solution". In addition to the planners of Follow Through having conflicting views on the real purpose of the program, the selection of sponsors

6498-508: A variety of circumstances detailed earlier, the Follow Through programs were not systematically developed or selected according to any type of uniform criteria. Given more time, sponsors may have been able to better identify the types of treatment effects that an observer might expect to occur under controlled conditions. More importantly, program sponsors might also have been required to show those specific facets of their interventions (e.g., particular pedagogical techniques) which would produce

6669-454: A whole, with primary education showing particularly high rates of return. Additionally, besides bolstering economic prosperity, education contributes to technological and scientific advancements, reduces unemployment, and promotes social equity . Moreover, increased education is associated with lower birth rates , partly due to heightened awareness of family planning , expanded opportunities for women, and delayed marriage . Education plays

6840-449: A zero. According to Elmore, adjusted results using the ANCOVA technique should be interpreted cautiously for two reasons. First, ANCOVA "is not a substitute for random assignment, but it has become a conventionally accepted technique for handling initial group differences in quasi-experimental data". Second, the larger the initial differences between treatment and control groups, the weaker

7011-482: Is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge , skills, and character traits. However, extensive debate surrounds its precise nature beyond these general features. One approach views education as a process occurring during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning. Another perspective perceives education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated individuals resulting from this process. Furthermore,

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7182-590: Is advocating for education policies, such as the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child , which declares education as a fundamental human right for all children and young people. The Education for All initiative aimed to provide basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by 2015, later succeeded by the Sustainable Development Goals initiative, particularly goal 4 . Related policies include

7353-596: Is akin to secondary education in complexity but places greater emphasis on vocational training to ready students for the workforce. In some countries, tertiary education is synonymous with higher education , while in others, tertiary education encompasses a broader spectrum. Tertiary education builds upon the foundation laid in secondary education but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its culmination results in an academic degree . Tertiary education comprises four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's , master's , and doctoral education. These levels often form

7524-892: Is benefit with this model. Direct Instruction is used with students from every population segment (with regard to poverty, culture, and race). In Project Follow Through , the DI model was ranked first in achievement for poor students, students who were not poor, urban students, rural students, African American students, Hispanic students, and Native American students. Today, many of the Bureau of Indian Affair's highest-performing schools use Direct Instruction materials. The Baltimore Curriculum Project has many schools with Free and Reduced Lunch Rates above 75% serving student populations that are more than 90% African American. These schools have shown strong achievement gains using Direct Instruction. Meta-analysis of 85 single-subject design studies comparing direct instruction to other teaching strategies found

7695-596: Is compulsory in numerous countries across Central and East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In some nations, it represents the final phase of compulsory education. However, mandatory lower secondary education is less common in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia. Upper secondary education typically commences around the age of 15, aiming to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge for employment or tertiary education. Completion of lower secondary education

7866-462: Is difficult to get teachers to modify their behavior. And if the objective of changing behavior is achieved, teachers feel little ownership on the model—a decidedly dubious investment. What inevitably seems to happen is that teachers reject programs outright, while others "surrender to the program". The "fact-value dichotomy" . Ernest R. House , co-author of the 1978 critique of the Follow Through evaluation, penned an article about what he calls

8037-403: Is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public. It typically does not require tuition fees and is therefore a form of free education . In contrast, private education is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees. A more detailed classification focuses on

8208-424: Is necessary to maintain social stability. By facilitating individuals' integration into society, education fosters economic growth and diminishes poverty . It enables workers to enhance their skills, thereby improving the quality of goods and services produced, which ultimately fosters prosperity and enhances competitiveness. Public education is widely regarded as a long-term investment that benefits society as

8379-417: Is normally a prerequisite. The curriculum encompasses a broader range of subjects, often affording students the opportunity to select from various options. Attainment of a formal qualification, such as a high school diploma , is frequently linked to successful completion of upper secondary education. Education beyond the secondary level may fall under the category of post-secondary non-tertiary education, which

8550-677: Is often closely associated with the concept of IQ , a standardized numerical measure assessing intelligence based on mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has been argued that intelligence encompasses various types beyond IQ. Psychologist Howard Gardner posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains such as mathematics , logic , spatial cognition , language, and music. Additional types of intelligence influence interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These intelligences are largely autonomous, meaning that an individual may excel in one type while performing less well in another. According to proponents of learning style theory,

8721-408: Is possible to help schools that are in the lowest twenty percentile with respect to academic achievement steadily improve until they are performing well above average. In some cases, school achievement improved from the 16th percentile to above the 90th percentile. Teachers often express animosity towards the methods of Direct Instruction, claiming that it limits both student and teacher creativity in

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8892-492: Is seen as a "canned" or "teacher proof" curriculum deliverable via unskilled teachers. In Australia, where DI has been used in schools among several remote Indigenous Australians communities in Queensland, DI has been criticized for its high cost in return for only modest improvements in literacy and numeracy levels, as well as its US-centric theme which is alien to indigenous Australian cultures. Education Education

9063-415: Is seen as a process of shared experience, involving the discovery of a common world and the collaborative solving of problems . There are several classifications of education. One classification depends on the institutional framework, distinguishing between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Another classification involves different levels of education based on factors such as the student's age and

9234-543: Is the Success for All program, which uses scripted teaching to instruct elementary children in phonics and intensive reading in their instruction program. What the teacher says is carefully scripted into the program. The program was designed by Johns Hopkins University professor Robert Slavin in the mid-1980s for failing schools in Baltimore , Maryland. The program requires a dedicated 90 minutes of reading instruction in which

9405-444: Is the main distributor of Direct Instruction materials (NIFDI, 2005). One three-year study of methods of teaching reading showed that highly scripted, teacher-directed methods of teaching reading were not as effective as traditional methods that allowed a more flexible approach. Urban teachers, in particular, expressed great concern over the DI's lack of sensitivity to issues of poverty , culture , and race . The former president of

9576-795: Is the transmission of knowledge , skills , and character traits and manifests in various forms. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools , following a curriculum. Non-formal education also follows a structured approach but occurs outside the formal schooling system, while informal education entails unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are categorized into levels, including early childhood education , primary education , secondary education , and tertiary education . Other classifications focus on teaching methods, such as teacher-centered and student-centered education , and on subjects, such as science education , language education , and physical education . Additionally,

9747-399: Is to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments, providing affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure. In the broadest sense, special education also encompasses education for intellectually gifted children , who require adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential. Classifications based on the teaching method include teacher-centered education, where

9918-817: Is underscored by the annual International Day of Education on January 24, established by the United Nations , which designated 1970 as the International Education Year. Organized institutions play a pivotal role in multiple facets of education. Entities such as schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education comprise the education sector. They interact not only with one another but also with various stakeholders, including parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations , healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, media platforms, and political leaders. Numerous individuals are directly engaged in

10089-413: Is usually overseen and regulated by the government and often mandated up to a certain age. Non-formal and informal education occur outside the formal schooling system, with non-formal education serving as a middle ground. Like formal education, non-formal education is organized, systematic, and pursued with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such as tutoring , fitness classes, and participation in

10260-573: The Big Five personality traits , are associated with academic success. Other mental factors include self-efficacy , self-esteem , and metacognitive abilities. Sociological factors center not on the psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and societal position. These factors encompass socioeconomic status , ethnicity , cultural background , and gender , drawing significant interest from researchers due to their association with inequality and discrimination . Consequently, they play

10431-719: The Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative. Some influential organizations are non-governmental rather than intergovernmental. For instance, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and knowledge exchange among colleges and universities worldwide, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs. Institutions like

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10602-484: The Elementary and Secondary Education Act —would result in increased academic achievement for disadvantaged children, if implemented faithfully by committed teachers. However, studies had shown that despite its successes, in general any gains that children made from Head Start (in measures of academic achievement) "faded out" during the first few years of elementary school . It was unclear to policy makers and others if

10773-871: The Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide similar services for teachers. Educational success, also referred to as student and academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later income and incarceration rates. Several factors influence educational achievement, such as psychological factors related to

10944-476: The Follow Through evaluation was to determine which models were effective in raising student achievement in the three domains as evidenced by positive effects using the selected instruments. Within models, the evaluators compared performance on the various instruments between Follow Through (FT) and non- Follow Through (NFT) comparison groups at each site. Within groups, the evaluators averaged students' scores on each measure (or outcome variable) in order to yield

11115-431: The Follow Through evaluation. Egbert agrees with Adams and Engelmann that the data collection efforts were extensive. Despite the agreement among model sponsors on a uniform set of instruments to evaluate the effectiveness of their models—that model sponsors believed their programs achieved gains on more intrinsic, less measurable indicators of performance, such as increased self-worth or greater parental involvement. To

11286-583: The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), Anne Tweed, questioned whether direct instruction was the most effective science teaching strategy. In the December 15, 2004 NSTA Reports she concluded that "direct instruction alone cannot replace the in-depth experience with science concepts that inquiry-based strategies provide." Some critics also see DI as a betrayal of the humanistic , egalitarian foundations of adult public education. It

11457-536: The sciences , music , and art . Another objective is to facilitate personal development. Presently, primary education is compulsory in nearly all nations, with over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attending such schools. Secondary education succeeds primary education and typically spans the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is normally divided into lower secondary education (such as middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (like high school , senior high school, or college , depending on

11628-500: The scouting movement. Informal education, on the other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is typically no designated authority figure responsible for teaching. Informal education unfolds in various settings and situations throughout one's life, often spontaneously, such as children learning their first language from their parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by preparing

11799-541: The severe restrictions imposed on female education by the Taliban in Afghanistan , and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system. Project Follow Through Follow Through was the largest and most expensive experimental project in education funded by the U.S. federal government that has ever been conducted. The most extensive evaluation of Follow Through data covers

11970-417: The " fact-value dichotomy" in social experimentation and educational research: "the belief that facts refer to one thing and values refer to something totally different". House elucidates the writings of Donald Campbell, a researcher in the field of evaluation. House noted that, according to Campbell, facts cannot exist outside the framework of one's values because inevitably, an investigation that uncovers

12141-568: The Bank Street College of Education in New York. In this model, the students themselves direct learning: they select what tasks they wish to engage in, alone or with peers. The teacher arranges the classroom in ways that the sponsors believe will create the conditions for successful learning: various objects and media are available for children to interact with, and the teacher acts as a facilitator, guiding students through activities. According to

12312-564: The Cognitive Curriculum design their own approaches to instruction (including the specification of learning goals), with assistance from sponsors and fellow staff members. While the outcome goals might commonly be described as high levels of academic achievement or mastery of basic and higher-order thinking skills, exactly how students demonstrate these skills is missing in the Follow Through literature. During sponsor meetings, there were several heated arguments between some sponsors about

12483-534: The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory). But it was better, according to many researchers, to measure outcomes imperfectly rather than not to measure them at all. Thus, while "perfect" measures of desired outcomes might never exist, one should not let the perfect be the enemy of the good—in other words, one could call into question the efficacy of conducting any experiment at all on the basis that some bias or imperfection exists. Was Follow Through

12654-675: The academic achievement of historically disadvantaged students. Conceived and implemented in the midst of President Johnson's War on Poverty campaign of the 1960s, Follow Through "came out of larger plan which attempted to lay out the causes and cures of poverty in American society on a systemic basis". In addition to the landmark Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 , other initiatives included economic policies designed to maintain levels of high employment and federally subsidized job training specifically targeted at people from disadvantaged backgrounds. These programs were implemented amidst

12825-417: The age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education. Categories based on the biological sex of students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education . Special education is tailored to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities , addressing various impairments on intellectual , social, communicative, and physical levels. Its goal

12996-543: The analysis that had ceased to implement specific models, or the model sponsors had serious reservations about the way particular models were implemented. The most vocal critique was the House, et al. (1978) reanalysis. The article—along with several rebuttals from the original evaluation team and other researchers—was published by the Harvard Educational Review in 1978. The authors were extremely dissatisfied with

13167-437: The assessment effort in this study went well beyond any other educational study conducted before, or since". In all, 14 instruments were selected and administered at various times throughout a student's participation in Follow Through . Three groups of students, known as Cohorts (i.e., Cohorts I, II, and III) were followed longitudinally from the time they entered Follow Through (e.g., Kindergarten or Grade 1) until they exited

13338-445: The authors question the efficacy of the self-esteem measures; implying, among other things, that young students cannot possibly have a concrete understanding of self-concept (pp. 138–139). While the article intended to review the operational design of the Follow Through evaluation, instead it appears to (1) refute the finding that cognitive-conceptual and affective-cognitive models were largely failures, and (2) unilaterally condemn

13509-410: The better. OEO hoped "idealistically" that Follow Through could satisfy both empirical and social action purposes. It seems doubtful that any form of experiment could realistically and faithfully serve both aims. According to Hill, true program evaluators should be "technical rather than political or programmatic, and their attitudes skeptical and dispassionate". The planning group of OEO wanted

13680-458: The change is not reflected in Congressional legislation or communicated clearly at the local level, issues of implementation and conflict with deeply held values inevitably result. There is much evidence that indicates confusion about the intent of the Follow Through evaluation at the administrative level. Issues of local control. The planned variation aspect of Follow Through

13851-453: The classroom and delivering instruction, the degree of interaction between adults and children, the level of parental involvement, and so forth. Below are brief examples of two models that represent extremes of the spectrum. Direct Instruction model . Developed by Siegfried Engelmann and Wesley Becker of the University of Oregon , direct instruction is scripted and specifies precisely what

14022-474: The classroom due to its strict, scripted procedures. Another common concern with Direct Instruction programs is their expense. Many argue that the current expense of implementing Direct Instruction programs is too high and unreasonable for low SES schools and school districts. The prices of student workbooks are about $ 20 while teacher workbook prices can range from $ 180–$ 232 as seen on the McGraw Hill website who

14193-474: The complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic, teaching method, medium used, and funding. The most common division is between formal , non-formal , and informal education . Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, typically with a chronological and hierarchical order. The modern schooling system organizes classes based on the student's age and progress, ranging from primary school to university. Formal education

14364-401: The conclusions of evaluation studies, and, indeed, blend together throughout evaluation studies". House suggests that the reader envision facts and values as existing on a continuum from "bute facts to bare values". Accordingly, rarely do "fact claims" or "value claims" fall entirely at one end of the spectrum or the other. House provides examples: "Diamonds are harder than steel" might fall at

14535-530: The content and skills that students should know and be able to do. This last detail is worth noting for two reasons. First, the program outcome goals that were provided by sponsors appeared relatively broad. For example, the sponsors of the Tucson Early Education Model explain that "there is relatively less emphasis on which items are taught and on the transmission of specific content, and more emphasis on 'learning to learn'". Likewise, teachers of

14706-762: The content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, resulting in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards such as good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial, leading to increased creativity, engagement, and long-term commitment. Educational psychologists aim to discover methods to increase motivation, such as encouraging healthy competition among students while maintaining

14877-554: The corresponding average score for a FT group), the evaluators employed a statistical method known as analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in order to adjust for these and other differences. The difference between the FT and NFT students was then used to measure the effects of a given model. Sites where models met the criterion for "educational effectiveness" were assigned a value of 1; negative effects were assigned -1; and null effects—"insignificant educationally, statistically, or both"—were assigned

15048-556: The country). Lower secondary education usually requires the completion of primary school as its entry prerequisite. It aims to expand and deepen learning outcomes, with a greater focus on subject-specific curricula , and teachers often specialize in one or a few specific subjects. One of its goals is to acquaint students with fundamental theoretical concepts across various subjects, laying a strong foundation for lifelong learning . In certain instances, it may also incorporate rudimentary forms of vocational training . Lower secondary education

15219-433: The degree of specificity to which they should link facets of their models to student outcomes or behaviors. Follow Through administrators could not investigate models more thoroughly because of limited time; indeed, only eight months separated the selection of the sponsored model approach and the start of the experiment. Because Congress had already reduced the program budget, there was legitimate concern among planners that

15390-547: The development of students' personalities. Evidence-based education employs scientific studies to determine the most effective educational methods. Its aim is to optimize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies by ensuring they are grounded in the best available empirical evidence . This encompasses evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research. Autodidacticism , or self-education, occurs independently of teachers and institutions. Primarily observed in adult education, it offers

15561-443: The differences, there were points of agreement among all sponsors. Sponsors agreed that their interventions should be developmentally appropriate—that is, models take account of where students are in their development as learners. Second, everyone agreed that teaching and learning should be responsive to the needs of individual learners. Third, they agreed that all students—even those from the most disadvantaged backgrounds—could learn to

15732-516: The directions. As with all Direct Instruction programs, the Direct Instruction groups are kept small and commingled with others of similar skill levels. Features that make Direct Instruction effective: Debates about the efficacy of DI have raged before the final results of Project Follow Through were published; however, there is substantial empirical research supporting its effectiveness. A meta-analysis published by Adams and Engelmann (1996),

15903-421: The early stages of education when the child's mind is not yet fully developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where young children must learn certain things without comprehending the underlying reasons, such as specific safety rules and hygiene practices. Education can be characterized from both the teacher's and the student's perspectives. Teacher-centered definitions emphasize the perspective and role of

16074-428: The education sector, such as students, teachers, school principals, as well as school nurses and curriculum developers. Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held, as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, such as infrastructure. Regulations also cover

16245-509: The effective structured programs. These shared characteristics might have informed the development of additional effective programs or made the ineffective approaches better. Starting in 1982, funding was in fact reduced for those programs that were identified as successful in Follow Through , perhaps on the presumption that funding would be better diverted to assisting failed programs. Ultimately, programs that had lesser empirical validation were nonetheless recommended for dissemination along with

16416-542: The effects to be substantial for students with learning disabilities; however, when qualified by IQ and reading levels, Strategy Instruction (SI) had better effects for the high IQ group. For the low-IQ discrepancy groups, higher effect sizes were yielded for a Combined DI and SI Model when compared to all competing models. With the exception of handwriting, DI's effects were all above 0.8 (i.e., reading and mathematics). John Hattie's Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement (2009) summarizes

16587-500: The efficacy of a number of interventions in local districts, districts chose the interventions they wanted implemented in their schools. This method of selecting a desired intervention among several candidates is called planned variation. One publication refers to it as "random innovation". Planned variation was thought to be advantageous over random assignment because it gave local communities (e.g. community members, parents, administrators, and teachers) an element of local control over

16758-417: The elementary school experience itself caused this phenomenon, or if specific approaches to instruction within schools were the problem. Follow Through intended to solve the problem by identifying what whole-school approaches to curriculum and instruction worked, and what did not. Subsequently, effective models were to be promulgated by the government as exemplars of innovative and proven methods of raising

16929-451: The emergence of ancient civilizations , the invention of writing led to an expansion of knowledge, prompting a transition from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was largely accessible to elites and religious groups. The advent of the printing press in the 15th century facilitated widespread access to books, thus increasing general literacy . In the 18th and 19th centuries, public education gained significance, paving

17100-433: The enjoyment of the learning process, typically prevails. While the differentiation among the three types is generally clear, certain forms of education may not neatly fit into a single category. In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred informally, with little distinction between educational activities and other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire environment served as a classroom, and adults commonly assumed

17271-490: The evaluation, and on their unique circumstances of need. As Stebbins et al. point out, the treatment groups were often the neediest children. To randomly select some of the most disadvantaged children (many of whom participated in Head Start prior to Follow Through ) out of the evaluation would certainly have been negatively perceived by community members. Stebbins et al. point out that there were "considerable variations in

17442-464: The exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer

17613-583: The extent that these desired outcomes occurred, and benefited the lives of students in ways that might never be measurably through quantitative means, those aspects of many models were successful. Both the House et al. critique and others (cited in Wisler ) express concerns about the inadequacy of the instruments used to measure self-esteem the Follow Through evaluation (i.e., the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Scale (IARS) and

17784-426: The fact that the models which showed positive effects were largely basic skills models. Abt Associates identified five major findings related to the question of differential model effectiveness; the principal empirical findings of the experiment were reported as follows: A separate analysis examined the impact of Siegfried Engelmann's Direct Instruction method on students over several decades. This analysis suggested

17955-486: The freedom to choose what and when to study, making it a potentially more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance may lead to aimless learning, while the absence of external feedback could result in autodidacts developing misconceptions and inaccurately assessing their learning progress. Autodidacticism is closely associated with lifelong education , which entails continuous learning throughout one's life. Categories of education based on

18126-410: The implementation of their program. In fact, Hill believed that programs like Follow Through "can be... permanent sources of advocacy pressure on behalf of the goals and beneficiaries of federal programs". Follow Through , like Head Start , was enormous in scope, and designed to remedy the fact that "poor children tend to do poorly in school". Despite the cut in funding, it nevertheless served

18297-457: The importance of critical thinking in distinguishing education from indoctrination . They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on instilling beliefs in students, regardless of their rationality; whereas education also encourages the rational ability to critically examine and question those beliefs. However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished, as some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in

18468-502: The individual student, and sociological factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to educational technology , teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other. On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation , intelligence , and personality. Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning. Motivated students are more likely to interact with

18639-407: The instrument battery represented the "best compromise" given the range of models. Despite the relatively large number of students who participated in Follow Through , the evaluators imposed rigorous restrictions on the sample that was actually in the statistical analysis. The comparison group—students from the community identified as not participating in Follow Through —was not subject to precisely

18810-431: The intended effects. Despite these flaws, the sponsors agreed on being subject to the same evaluation instruments. Unfortunately, the instruments shed little light on what about the ineffective programs made them so unsuccessful. The converse is also true. Since structured programs tended to show better effects than the unstructured ones, it would appear logical that efforts might have been made to identify commonalities among

18981-638: The interventions derived from the sponsors themselves. There was no other reliable source from which the program administrators could obtain information about them. Had they been able to see examples of the different models being implemented, they might have been able to ask clarifying questions in order to better distinguish between them—which might have been important for purposes of assessment. Program models were also classified by where they place emphasis on learning, according to three educational orientations: basic skills, cognitive conceptual skills, and affective/cognitive behavior (also see Appendix A). Despite

19152-401: The late 1960s, Project Follow Through included DI as one of the programs to compare the outcomes of over 20 different educational interventions in high-poverty communities. The study was a large government-funded study that was implemented over a multiyear period. DI was implemented at 19 different sites, which ranged in demographic and geographic characteristics. The results indicated that DI was

19323-477: The left of the spectrum, while "Cabernet is better than Chardonnay" falls to the right. In conclusion, House proposes an entirely a new method of empirical investigation called "deliberative democratic evaluation". In it, evaluators arrive at "unbiased claims" through "inclusion of all relevant stakeholder perspectives, values, and interests in the study; extensive dialogue between the evaluator and stakeholders...and extensive deliberation to reach valid conclusions in

19494-404: The level of their more fortunate peers. Fourth, classroom management procedures that create an appropriate learning environment should be emphasized. Fifth, school should be a place where students experience both high self-esteem and academic success. Ironically, the last point of agreement—as far as Maccoby and Zellner were concerned—was that all interventions should have very clear objectives about

19665-469: The model. Despite ambiguities among many of the models (and the minute shades of distinction between some models) the Follow Through literature classified models according to the degree of structure they offered, and where they place emphasis on learning. The "degree of structure" (e.g. "low", "medium", or "high") offered by a particular model is evidenced by how closely teachers were instructed to adhere to specific procedures, including: ways of arranging

19836-455: The models that emphasize basic skills. The implication is that the goal of education should not be increased student achievement in solely basic skills, and that Follow Through would have been better employed to discover how measures of all three orientations could be made successful. Absent from the critique is the finding that, for third graders, only the Direct Instruction model demonstrated positive effects in all three domains, and that one of

20007-428: The nature of education, its objectives, impacts, and methods for enhancement. Education studies encompasses various subfields, including philosophy , psychology , sociology , and economics of education . Additionally, it explores topics such as comparative education , pedagogy , and the history of education . In prehistory , education primarily occurred informally through oral communication and imitation . With

20178-422: The number of potentially conflicting federal intervention programs in schools, which was thought by some to be counterproductive and expensive. Moreover, if models could be identified that were effective with needy children, these interventions could be staged in regular education classrooms as well. Because Follow Through came into existence because of executive and not legislative action, overall control for

20349-497: The only intervention that had significantly positive impacts on all outcomes that were measured. Direct Instruction has been effectively delivered through peers to students with learning disabilities . Peer delivery offers teachers new ways to use the curriculum. The approach has also been examined as a model to assist students in a resource room with homework completion, bolster executive functioning skills, and improve teacher efficiency. Another popular direct instruction approach

20520-418: The operational and design problems that plagued the experiment. In particular, these critiques note that there was more variation within a particular model than there was from model to model. This problem has largely been attributed to the problem of how to measure the effectiveness of a particular implementation; the measures used were largely qualitative and anecdotal. In some instances, sites were included in

20691-402: The original statistical analysis conducted by Abt Associates. Generally, the consensus among most researchers is that structured models tended to perform better than unstructured ones, and that the Direct Instruction and Behavior Analysis models performed better on the instruments employed than did the other models. ) Most critiques of the Follow Through experiment have tended to focus on

20862-403: The period from birth until the commencement of primary school . It is designed to facilitate holistic child development, addressing physical, mental, and social aspects. Early childhood education is pivotal in fostering socialization and personality development , while also imparting fundamental skills in communication, learning, and problem-solving. Its overarching goal is to prepare children for

21033-425: The planning stage—which Egbert describes "as a time of haste and confusion"—was an attempt to satisfy constituencies of both perspectives. Due largely to the sociocultural context in which Follow Through was born, planners deliberately structured the program to minimize the involvement of federal officials in the implementation effort. The more Follow Through could be perceived as a locally controlled effort,

21204-455: The political mobilization of the poor and the undermining of local government agencies". Follow Through was intended to be an extension of the Head Start community action program. Since Head Start was politically popular, a program associated with Head Start would put the OEO "back in the good graces of Congress". Although Follow Through , like Head Start , was initially intended as

21375-735: The preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities. Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style assessment by teachers. The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such as conscientiousness and openness to experience , identified in

21546-563: The preservation and transmission of knowledge and skills rooted in indigenous heritage. This approach often employs traditional methods such as oral narration and storytelling. Other forms of alternative schooling include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition. Some distinctions revolve around the recipients of education. Categories based on

21717-437: The process (ostensibly) to preserving the fidelity of the implementations. On this point, Elmore tends to agree. Because of the range of models, a broad range of instruments and analytical methods was selected in order to measure the targeted outcomes of basic skills, affective behavior, and cognitive behavior. Adams and Engelmann wrote, "while critics have complained about test selection and have usually suggested more testing,

21888-461: The program Instead, program administrators made the "brilliant decision... (to) convert Follow Through from a service program to a research and development program". Follow Through planners felt that they were responding to an important challenge in the education of disadvantaged students. It was generally hypothesized that the mere provision of specific supports in the form of federal compensatory programs—such as Head Start and Title I of

22059-406: The program (Grade 3). While the authors of the Follow Through report rated the instruments as having high reliability, some sponsors questioned the validity of the instruments in measuring the varied orientations of the models. Other critics, such as House et al. in a Ford Foundation -funded and widely disseminated analysis, also criticized the instruments. However, the evaluators believed that

22230-567: The program rested in Johnson's Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), which spearheaded Johnson's War on Poverty policy. A major component of the policy was community involvement. The Community Action Program (CAP) was charged with fulfilling this function through the establishment of local agencies and programs that carried out various federally sponsored initiatives for disadvantaged populations. However, CAP (and, to some extent, OEO) fell into disrepute among legislators and others, because "it resulted in

22401-439: The program sponsors, students use previously learned knowledge to construct new knowledge. According to the sponsors, given a safe and stable environment, learning is a process that occurs naturally. In his evaluation of the operational facets of Follow Through , Elmore expressed concern that the shades of distinction among models in terms of structure made comparisons and final analysis among models problematic. Descriptions of

22572-431: The program, based on criteria established by the OEO. According to Egbert, 90 districts applied, of which 30 were chosen for participation in Follow Through . However, due to pressure from influential politicians, additional sites were later added. Not coincidentally, the inclusion of several additional districts appears to have been an attempt to satisfy a number of local political figures by including their communities in

22743-484: The program. While Elmore laments that sites could have been chosen with a greater degree of scientific rigor (e.g. stratified random sampling), this was impossible, for at least two reasons. First, Follow Through administrators had the obligation to select a minimum number of sites with Head Start programs, because the ostensible purpose of Follow Through was to complement Head Start . Second—aside from political pressures—communities had to be willing participants in

22914-422: The programs were in a very early stage of development and had not been extensively (or even moderately) field-tested or piloted. Some programs were so ambiguous that Elmore wrote that "most program developers were simply not clear what their programs would actually look like in a fully operational form". Many sponsors could not explain precisely which aspects of their models would lead to the stated outcome goals of

23085-457: The pronouncement of the evaluators that the basic skills models outperformed the other models. The authors approach the critique on the assumption that basic skills are decidedly just that—basic. The authors imply that basic skills are only taught through "rote methods"—a decidedly negative connotation (p. 137). Regarding the finding that "models that emphasize basic skills produced better results on tests of self-concept than did other models",

23256-463: The range of children served"; yet despite the presence of "many of the problems inherent in field social research...evaluations of these planned variations provides us with an opportunity to examine the educational strategies under real life conditions as opposed to contrived and tightly controlled laboratory conditions". Narrowness of instruments . Adams and Engelmann note that many critics have suggested that more instruments should have been used in

23427-690: The remaining two models (Behavior Analysis; the other was the Parent Education model) that had positive effects in at least two domains was also a self-described "basic skills model". In 1972, the OE created the Joint Dissemination Review Panel (JDRP) and the National Diffusion Network (NDN) to disseminate information about effective models to schools and districts nationwide. JDRP reviewed programs for effectiveness according to

23598-415: The results of four meta-analyses that examined Direct Instruction. These analyses incorporated 304 studies of over 42,000 students. Across all of these students, the average effect size was 0.59 and was significantly larger than those of any other curriculum Hattie studied. Direct Instruction is recognized as one of two effective models of comprehensive school reform and, in many cases, can be integrated into

23769-463: The role of educators. However, informal education often proves insufficient for imparting large quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation, formal educational settings and trained instructors are typically necessary. This necessity contributed to the increasing significance of formal education throughout history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards more abstract learning experiences and topics, distancing itself from daily life. There

23940-432: The same restrictions as the control group, as long as they entered and exited school in the same districts and at the same time as Follow Through students. Due to the number of intervention sites and range of instruments the analysis was complex and extensive. According to Watkins, there were over 2,000 comparisons between Follow Through and non- Follow Through groups alone. In 1968, Stanford Research Institute (SRI)

24111-745: The situation. Low socioeconomic status is also associated with poorer physical and mental health , contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists across generations. Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions and language barriers, which can pose challenges for students in adapting to the school environment and comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit and implicit biases and discrimination against ethnic minorities further compound these difficulties. Such biases can impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational opportunities. For instance, teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not overtly racist , leading to differential grading of comparable performances based on

24282-510: The skills necessary to become productive members of society. In doing so, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems . Organized institutions play a significant role in education. For instance, governments establish education policies to determine the timing of school classes, the curriculum, and attendance requirements. International organizations , such as UNESCO , have been influential in promoting primary education for all children . Many factors influence

24453-546: The social institutions responsible for education, such as family, school, civil society, state, and church. Compulsory education refers to education that individuals are legally mandated to receive, primarily affecting children who must attend school up to a certain age. This stands in contrast to voluntary education, which individuals pursue based on personal choice rather than legal obligation. Education serves various roles in society , spanning social, economic, and personal domains. Socially, education establishes and maintains

24624-458: The social service purpose and goals of the Head Start program were clearer than those of the Follow Through evaluation. Nevertheless, community leaders had felt that Head Start did not give enough decision-making responsibility to parents and community members. Local interests wanted to make curricular decisions, including the changing of facets of some program models Evans cautioned that "educational communities and contexts vary", which can have

24795-433: The sponsors (Direct Instruction) was found to produce positive results more consistently than any of the others, it would be inappropriate and irresponsible to disseminate information on all of the models". Of course, it would have been ideal to have the kind of conclusiveness associated with laboratory experiments when we conduct social experiments in communities and schools. Andy B. Anderson (1975) wrote that "the idea of

24966-541: The sponsors had fairly well developed interventions based on theories of instruction. Others merely had ideas for what might constitute effective interventions. The sponsors also differed widely on the outcomes they expected as a result of their programs. Some sponsors had very specific goals which they believed would lead to very specific outcomes, such as improved literacy skills on measures of reading achievement. Others had more general goals, such as increased self-esteem, or heightened parental involvement in schooling. Most of

25137-486: The strength of the results. The results of Follow Through did not show how models that showed little or no effects could be improved. But they did show which models—as suggested by the less than ideal conditions of the experiment—had some indications of success. Of these models, Siegfried Engelmann 's Direct Instruction method demonstrated the highest gains in the comparative study. The most notable critique of Follow Through (described in detail below) takes issue with

25308-538: The student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the content covered. Additional criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8). Early childhood education, also referred to as preschool education or nursery education, encompasses

25479-593: The student, ensuring the process is beneficial, and conducting it in a morally appropriate manner. While such precise definitions often characterize the most typical forms of education effectively, they face criticism because less common types of education may occasionally fall outside their parameters. Dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be challenging, which is why some theorists prefer offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead. This approach suggests that all forms of education are similar to each other but need not share

25650-663: The students. Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico. International organizations also play a pivotal role in education. For example, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education through various means. One of its activities

25821-538: The study". House decries the use of entirely rational methods when applied to evaluations; indeed, he recommends a degree of subjectiveness, because evaluations like Follow Through cannot exist outside deeply held values. Hill writes: "There is seldom anyone at the local level whose commitment to an externally-imposed curricular innovation, planning process, or financial management scheme springs spontaneously from deeply held personal values." House argues that all decision-making that stems from evaluations in education

25992-727: The subject encompass science education , language education , art education , religious education , physical education , and sex education . Special mediums such as radio or websites are utilized in distance education , including e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. Often, these take the form of open education , wherein courses and materials are accessible with minimal barriers, contrasting with traditional classroom or onsite education. However, not all forms of online education are open; for instance, some universities offer full online degree programs that are not part of open education initiatives. State education, also known as public education ,

26163-425: The success of education. Psychological factors include motivation , intelligence , and personality . Social factors, such as socioeconomic status , ethnicity , and gender , are often associated with discrimination . Other factors encompass access to educational technology , teacher quality, and parental involvement. The primary academic field examining education is known as education studies . It delves into

26334-503: The successful models. Lack of random assignment . Random assignment of subjects into treatment and control groups is the ideal method of attributing change in a sample to an intervention and not to some other effect (including the pre-existing capabilities of students, teachers, or school systems). However, for a variety of practical reasons, this procedure was not done in Follow Through . Instead, sites were selected "opportunistically", based on their readiness to participate in

26505-401: The teacher in transmitting knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate manner. On the other hand, student-centered definitions analyze education based on the student's involvement in the learning process, suggesting that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences. It's also possible to consider definitions that incorporate both perspectives. In this approach, education

26676-737: The teacher must follow a pre-ordained lesson plan that has every minute filled with scripted instruction and specific activities designed to teach reading. Not all experts were in favor of this instructional approach. For instance, Jonathan Kozol criticized the program in his book, The Shame of the Nation , for being excessively dogmatic, utilitarian, and authoritarian. English Language Learners (ELL) students could also benefit from Direct Instruction. The program for teaching English to Spanish-speaking students begins with teachers giving instruction in Spanish and then gradually incorporating more and more English into

26847-480: The teacher plays a central role in imparting information to students, and student-centered education , where students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities. In conscious education, learning and teaching occur with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education unfolds spontaneously without conscious planning or guidance. This may occur, in part, through the influence of teachers' and adults' personalities , which can indirectly impact

27018-447: The teacher says and what the students' responses should be. Moreover, the program designers carefully sequenced the instruction so that students do not progress to higher-order skills unless they have mastered prerequisite basic skills. There is a high degree of interaction between teachers and students so the teacher may receive continuous feedback about how well the students are doing, and adjusts instruction accordingly. The program makes

27189-565: The term "education" can denote the mental states and qualities of educated individuals and the academic field studying educational phenomena. The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about the aims of education and the extent to which education differs from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking . These disagreements impact how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of education. Essentially, education socializes children into society by instilling cultural values and norms , equipping them with

27360-573: The term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning. Having a clear understanding of the term is crucial when attempting to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices. Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying specific features exclusive to all forms of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters , for instance, outlines three essential features of education, including imparting knowledge and understanding to

27531-494: The transition to primary education. While preschool education is typically optional, in certain countries such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four. Primary (or elementary) education usually begins between the ages of five and seven and spans four to seven years. It has no additional entry requirements and aims to impart fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Additionally, it provides essential knowledge in subjects such as history , geography ,

27702-434: The turbulent era of the 1960s and 1970s; marked by the struggles and eventual enfranchisement of a number of formerly excluded constituencies "including African Americans , feminists , Hispanics , Native Americans , and parents of handicapped children". In typical scientific experiments, treatment and control groups are selected through random assignment. Because Follow Through was an experiment designed to evaluate

27873-525: The union address , he proposed $ 120 million for the program, to serve approximately 200,000 children from disadvantaged backgrounds. However, when funding for the project was approved by the United States Congress , a fraction of that amount—merely $ 15 million—was authorized. This necessitated a change in strategy by the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), the government agency charged with oversight of

28044-500: The way for the global movement to provide primary education to all, free of charge , and compulsory up to a certain age. Presently, over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school. The term "education" originates from the Latin words educare , meaning "to bring up," and educere , meaning "to bring forth." The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree that education

28215-522: The years 1968–1977; however, the program continued to receive funding from the government until 1995. Follow Through was originally intended to be an extension of the federal Head Start program, which delivered educational, health, and social services to typically disadvantaged preschool children and their families. The function of Follow Through , therefore, was to provide a continuation of these services to students in their early elementary years. In President Lyndon B. Johnson 's 1967 state of

28386-659: Was a greater emphasis on understanding general principles and concepts rather than simply observing and imitating specific behaviors. Types of education are often categorized into different levels or stages. One influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education , maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This classification encompasses both formal and non-formal education and distinguishes levels based on factors such as

28557-632: Was a specific direct instruction model developed by Siegfried Engelmann and Wesley C. Becker. Engelmann and Becker sought to identify teaching methods that would accelerate the progress of historically disadvantaged elementary school students. Direct Instruction was first formally implemented at a preschool program for children from impoverished backgrounds at the University of Illinois in the mid-1960s. The team implementing DI consists of Siegfried Engelmann, Carl Bereiter, and Jean Osborn. The program incorporated short instructional periods, usually 20 to 30 minutes

28728-420: Was awarded the contract for the Follow Through evaluation. However, due to a variety of factors—including, perhaps, SRIs underestimation of the complexity involved in such a comprehensive analysis—Abt Associates, Inc. later inherited the evaluative duties in the summer of 1972. The summary of results, entitled Education as Experimentation: A Planned Variation Model was published in 1977. The empirical goal of

28899-436: Was equally imprecise. Follow Through sponsors were an eclectic mix of individuals or groups conducting research on instructional methods. Some came from universities, including schools of education . Others were involved in private or grant-based research efforts. The selection method was unclear. According to Watkins, "invitations were apparently extended to any group conducting research on instructional methods". Some of

29070-632: Was minimal specialization , with children typically learning a broad range of skills essential for community functioning. However, modern societies are increasingly complex, with many professions requiring specialized training alongside general education. Consequently, only a relatively small number of individuals master certain professions. Additionally, skills and tendencies acquired for societal functioning may sometimes conflict, with their value dependent on context. For instance, fostering curiosity and questioning established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, while at times, obedience to authority

29241-489: Was thought to be beneficial—perhaps superior—to other forms of experimentation (e.g., selection of sites based on randomized assignment) because it would give local communities and schools an element of ownership integral to the successful implementation of the models. Despite the planned variation design, local communities in many sites were nevertheless deeply critical of the program. In some ways, criticism of Follow Through had preceded directly from Head Start. Ostensibly,

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