Nighat Dad ( Urdu : نگہت داد ; born c. 1981 ) is a Pakistani lawyer and Internet activist who runs the not-for-profit organisation Digital Rights Foundation. Her work in the field of IT security has earned her many international awards.
165-737: Dad was born in 1981 in Lahore. She hails from a village in Jhang , Punjab . She received her education from the University of the Punjab , Lahore from where she has received a degree of the Master of Laws. Her marriage lasted only 18 months, and as a single mother, she had to wage a legal battle to win the custody of her child. During court proceedings she met many single mothers involved in legal battle to gain custody of their children, and she has been helping such women. Dad
330-662: A founding member of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1945 . India was a participating state in the Summer Olympics in 1900 , 1920 , 1928 , 1932 , and 1936 . The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar, except for small holdings by other European nations such as Goa and Pondicherry . This area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains,
495-536: A European woman, and ordinarily more problematic to imprison, was arrested in 1917. Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and, simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. However, since the Government of India wanted to ensure against any sabotage of
660-624: A Railway Board; irrigation reform; reduction of peasant debts; lowering the cost of telegrams; archaeological research and the preservation of antiquities; improvements in the universities; police reforms; upgrading the roles of the Native States; a new Commerce and Industry Department; promotion of industry; revised land revenue policies; lowering taxes; setting up agricultural banks; creating an Agricultural Department; sponsoring agricultural research; establishing an Imperial Library; creating an Imperial Cadet Corps; new famine codes; and, indeed, reducing
825-592: A champion of the emancipation of Indian women, took up the cause of widow remarriage, especially of Brahmin widows, later converted to Christianity. By 1900 reform movements had taken root within the Indian National Congress. Congress member Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society , which lobbied for legislative reform (for example, for a law to permit the remarriage of Hindu child widows), and whose members took vows of poverty, and worked among
990-464: A committee chaired by a British judge, Sidney Rowlatt , and was tasked with investigating "revolutionary conspiracies", with the unstated goal of extending the government's wartime powers. The Rowlatt Committee comprised four British and two Indian members, including Sir Basil Scott and Diwan Bahadur Sir C. V. Kumaraswami Sastri , the present and future Chief Justices of the High Court of Bombay and
1155-546: A demand for Purna Swaraj ( Hindustani language : "complete independence"), or Purna Swarajya. The declaration was drafted by the Congress Working Committee , which included Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari . Gandhi subsequently led an expanded movement of civil disobedience, culminating in 1930 with the Salt Satyagraha , in which thousands of Indians defied the tax on salt, by marching to
1320-534: A dense area of it once existed near Shorkot. Like the ukanh, jands growing in the Bars generally prefer moist, low-lying areas. The sohajna, or horseradish tree ( Moringa pterygosperma ), is found throughout the district, but is especially common in the Jhang tehsil. It gets pruned regularly every year, and its fruit is preserved and used in chutneys as well as to make pickles. The jal ( Salvadora oleoides ), also called
1485-534: A dorsal ridge, covered with efflorescent saltpetre , between the fertile low-lying alluvial lands of the two rivers." This area has exceptionally sour soil and it extends as far south as Kadirpur Bakhsha. The Utar between the Jhelum and the Kirana Bar, in the area around Kot Isa Shah , is arguably the most fertile part of the district. Agriculture flourishes here, and there are plenty of trees for some distance away from
1650-457: A drop in temperature, and the lack of muggy weather makes Jhang District more pleasant during this period than some other areas. Any pause in the rains, though, and the heat becomes intense again. The next major change usually happens in August, when the nights and mornings get cooler. When the cold weather begins depends on the amount of rainfall during August and September: if there is no rain, then
1815-536: A fragrant smell and is coloured dark brownish-red. Cows will eat it, but only when desperate, because it is not very nutritious. Khawi grass is used to make khas-khas . Like khawi, panhi grass grows in hollows and depressions, but it sticks to better soils and does not grow in kallar . It somewhat resembles the buta in shape, although it is straight and stiff instead of drooping like the buta. Its roots are long and tough, and they are used to make rope as well as to make weavers ' brushes. Wolves are found in both
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#17330849425921980-616: A loyal supporter of Gandhi and go on to play a prominent role in the Indian independence movement. When Gandhi was ordered to leave by the local British authorities, he refused on moral grounds, setting up his refusal as a form of individual Satyagraha . Soon, under pressure from the Viceroy in Delhi who was anxious to maintain domestic peace during wartime, the provincial government rescinded Gandhi's expulsion order, and later agreed to an official enquiry into
2145-520: A more radical resolution which asked for the British to declare that it was their "aim and intention ... to confer self-government on India at an early date". Soon, other such rumblings began to appear in public pronouncements: in 1917, in the Imperial Legislative Council , Madan Mohan Malaviya spoke of the expectations the war had generated in India, "I venture to say that the war has put
2310-473: A much narrower channel. Since it is a fairly narrow river, islands are uncommon. The Jhelum floods a smaller area than the Chenab, but its deposits are much richer: more mud and less sand. A deposit of Jhelum silt can yield a good rice crop in its first year, unlike the Chenab. The zone on the banks of the Jhelum is "fertile, well wooded, densely cultivated, and supports a larger population than any other portion of
2475-402: A practical strategy adopted by the weak in the face of superior force; Satyagraha , on the other hand, was for him the "last resort of those strong enough in their commitment to truth to undergo suffering in its cause". Ahimsa or "non-violence", which formed the underpinning of Satyagraha , came to represent the twin pillar, with Truth, of Gandhi's unorthodox religious outlook on life. During
2640-414: A relatively narrow band of Hithar lowlands, there is a wide floodplain with many channels that carry floodwaters inland. There is a narrow band of rich sailab land along the riverbank. Beyond this, higher ground and patches of sandy sar -covered wasteland become common. Wells for irrigation also become more common farther away from the river. In February or March the view of this cis-Chenab portion of
2805-561: A result of his civil liberties protests on behalf of the Indians in South Africa, Gandhi followed the advice of his mentor Gopal Krishna Gokhale and chose not to make any public pronouncements during the first year of his return, but instead spent the year travelling, observing the country at first hand, and writing. Earlier, during his South Africa sojourn, Gandhi, a lawyer by profession, had represented an Indian community, which, although small,
2970-631: A result of the reunification of Bengal in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to Muslims. In the Lucknow Pact , the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916,
3135-579: A watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Shortly before the outbreak of war, the Government of India had indicated that they could furnish two divisions plus a cavalry brigade, with a further division in case of emergency. Some 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army took part in the war, primarily in Iraq and the Middle East . Their participation had
3300-536: A wider cultural fallout as news spread of how bravely soldiers fought and died alongside British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia. India's international profile rose during the 1920s, as it became a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participated, under the name "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. Back in India, especially among
3465-481: Is a lawyer by profession and practice criminal and family law . In 2012, she set up the Digital Rights Foundation where she was executive director, educate Pakistani internet users, particularly women to protect themselves from online harassment . Pakistani activist for female education and the youngest-ever Nobel Prize laureate Malala Yousafzai has also attended workshops of Dad, before being shot by
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#17330849425923630-514: Is a smaller grass, inferior in quality. Its seeds are shaped like a woodlouse . The best grass of all is dhaman , which grows more in the north and less in the south. It will not grow on kallar soil. It is "a thick, juicy, pale green grass" that gets very tall with enough rain. It supposedly makes buffalo milk slightly intoxicating if they graze on it. Another good grass is pilan , which makes sweet hay and grows mixed with chhimbar and kheo . Kheo sprouts exceptionally quickly after rains; it
3795-472: Is a true lynx . Jackals historically were found along the Chenab "in great numbers", but not so much in the Bars. Two different kinds of foxes also live in the district: one is a light yellowish-brown colour, and it blends in with the ground after a drought; the other one is darker in colour. Wild pigs and hares also live in Jhang District. Birds found in the district include the houbara , which
3960-494: Is also not useful to humans. Jawanh, or the camelthorn , is mostly found in the waste and fallow lands that get flooded by the rivers; it is a weed that causes problems for agriculture. The leh, or thistle , is another weed that grows in old sailab lands. Two more problematic weeds are the harmal and the bhukil, which are found throughout the Kachhi areas under well-based agriculture. The harmal mostly grows on fallow lands, while
4125-510: Is called the obara here and is especially common throughout the district during the colder months; the coulon , or kunj , which comes here during the cold season and is most common in Hithar areas; and geese , which migrate here later than the coulon and are most common along the banks of the Jhelum and the lower Chenab. The sandgrouse is common throughout the district in November and December, and
4290-459: Is cultivated land, but since its roots need to get down to water for it to thrive, it is most abundant in the Hithar lowlands along the rivers. Particularly in the southern Hithar, just about every well has a bunch of shishams growing around it, and many of them can get quite big. The shisham can be found either growing straight or drooping. The ber ( Ziziphus jujuba ) is a hardy tree, and it will grow just about anywhere, although it does best in
4455-415: Is enjoyed both by people and by animals. It usually ripens around the beginning of June, and it gets gathered, dried, and stored. Livestock that eat the pilu fruit are supposed to produce sweeter milk, and more of it. The karir bush ( Capparis aphylla ) grows alongside the jal throughout the district. Like the jal, it is especially common in the Kachhi and Bar regions. Sheep and goats readily graze off
4620-400: Is higher quality than murak , which also has this trait. Aleti , dedhak , and kilanj are three prostrate grasses that grow in Jhang District; all three of them are very hardy and do well during droughts. Sheep and goats eat them on the ground, while people dig them up and feed them to cattle. Khawi grass grows in hollows where water collects, and tends to favour kallar soil. It has
4785-681: Is named after the Kirana Hills , is part of the Chaj Doab between the Chenab and Jhelum rivers. Like the Sandal Bar, the Kirana Bar is generally separated from the Utar by a distinct ridge, called the Nakka . The flora is also similar between the two regions. However, the Kirana Bar has more fertile land than the Sandal Bar, and light rain showers can leave the Kirana Bar "carpeted with grass". The soil gets worse to
4950-402: Is tall and high quality and requires a good deal of rain to thrive. Garham somewhat resembles lunak in appearance, but is taller and stronger. It does not grow in kallar soil, but instead usually grows under bushes that have been fertilised by dung . It is not as good as lunak. Kurya is an uncommon grass, but it is high quality and makes especially good grazing for horses. Khar madhuna
5115-480: Is the area where cattle graze. Closest to the border with the Bar, the distance to water is far, and the fertility of this area varies heavily depending on rainfall. Farmers try to bring rainwater down from the Bar uplands. Towards the southern end of the district, good grassland becomes less common, and trees become mostly absent except in some depressions where water collects when it rains. The Chenab itself widens out in
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5280-450: Is the most preferred, and lani the least. Lana comes in two varieties, called gora and mithar . Khar is used to make sajji . Phog is mostly found in the Thal and in sandy parts of the Bars. It is rarely eaten by cattle, and it has no human use. Buin and khip are similarly useless to humans, and animals do not eat them. Ak is sometimes eaten by goats and deer if they get desperate, and it
5445-402: Is very high quality and traditionally was used for practically every purpose, especially making wooden wheels . The bark, meanwhile, is traditionally used in tanning as well as to make spirits . The Kabuli kikar ( Acacia cupressiformis ) is also common in Jhang District, but it is less valued for human use. The shisham ( Dalbergia sissu ), also called the tahli, is found wherever there
5610-635: The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes, and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India. To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two Rowlatt Bills . Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with
5775-616: The Census of British India in 1871, which had for the first time estimated the populations in regions of the Muslim majority (for his part, Curzon's desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 census—and in light of the history of Muslims fighting them in the 1857 Mutiny and the Second Anglo-Afghan War —about Indian Muslims rebelling against
5940-628: The Government of India Act 1935 , which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities. The future Constitution of independent India was based on this act. However, it divided the electorate into 19 religious and social categories, e.g., Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Depressed Classes, Landholders, Commerce and Industry, Europeans, Anglo-Indians, etc., each of which
6105-667: The High Court of Madras . It presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: Bengal , the Bombay presidency , and the Punjab . To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee unanimously recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its wartime authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects, and
6270-590: The Indo-Gangetic Plain , a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar Desert . In addition, at various times, it included Aden (from 1858 to 1937), Lower Burma (from 1858 to 1937), Upper Burma (from 1886 to 1937), British Somaliland (briefly from 1884 to 1898), and the Straits Settlements (briefly from 1858 to 1867). Burma was separated from India and directly administered by
6435-507: The Kachhi , which refers to "a country that is contained within some strongly marked boundary, here the Thal." The name is unrelated to the Urdu word kachcha meaning "unripe" or "unformed". The Kachhi only really exists south of the village of Sherowana — north of here, the Jhelum flows right next to the Thal. South of Sherowana, though, the Kachhi is about 9 miles wide and does not get inundated by
6600-513: The Kirana Bar , between the rivers, and the Thal , which is to the west of the Jhelum. These are high plateaus which slope down to the river valleys on either side. Finally, between the Hithar lowlands and the Bar and Thal uplands, there is an intermediate zone called the Utar. Each of these zones — Hithar, Utar, and the uplands — represent a different period of geological formation, with the uplands being
6765-543: The Minto–Morley Reforms , and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs , Indian Christians , Anglo-Indians , and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. The Montagu–Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at
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6930-560: The Partition of Bengal , which was a strategy set out by Lord Curzon to weaken the nationalist movement, Tilak encouraged the Swadeshi movement and the Boycott movement. The movement consisted of the boycott of foreign goods and also the social boycott of any Indian who used foreign goods. The Swadeshi movement consisted of the usage of natively produced goods. Once foreign goods were boycotted, there
7095-665: The Second Anglo-Afghan War ) and the attempts to control the vernacular press (e.g. in the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 ). It was, however, Viceroy Lord Ripon 's partial reversal of the Ilbert Bill (1883), a legislative measure that had proposed putting Indian judges in the Bengal Presidency on equal footing with British ones, that transformed the discontent into political action. On 28 December 1885, professionals and intellectuals from this middle-class — many educated at
7260-537: The Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue, local self-government were transferred to the provinces. The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new diarchical system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately
7425-676: The princely states . The region was sometimes called the Indian Empire , though not officially. This system of governance was instituted on 28 June 1858, when, after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (who, in 1876, was proclaimed Empress of India ). It lasted until 1947, when the British Raj
7590-447: The quail is common in spring and autumn. The most common snakes in the district include the karet and the cobra . The Bars especially are home to a large variety, including many venomous ones. This district comprises four sub-districts (or Tehsils ): (km²) (2023) (ppl/km²) (2023) British Raj The British Raj ( / r ɑː dʒ / RAHJ ; from Hindustani rāj , 'reign', 'rule' or 'government')
7755-447: The untouchable community . By 1905, a deep gulf opened between the moderates, led by Gokhale, who downplayed public agitation, and the new "extremists" who not only advocated agitation, but also regarded the pursuit of social reform as a distraction from nationalism. Prominent among the extremists was Bal Gangadhar Tilak , who attempted to mobilise Indians by appealing to an explicitly Hindu political identity, displayed, for example, in
7920-408: The Bars, the ukanh is a common sight wherever water collects or the soil is moister than usual. Its wood is hard and used for various purposes. The jand ( Acacia leucophelea ) is usually encountered as a stunted bush or shrub, but in more conducive conditions it can grow into a large tree. The presence of jand shrubs is a sign of good underlying soil. Jand jangal is uncommon in the Hithar, also
8085-592: The British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948. The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf and the other states under the Persian Gulf Residency were theoretically princely states as well as presidencies and provinces of British India until 1947 and used the rupee as their unit of currency. Among other countries in the region, Ceylon , which was referred to coastal regions and northern part of
8250-562: The British and Indians—not just between British army officers and their Indian staff but in civilian life as well. The Indian army was completely reorganised: units composed of the Muslims and Brahmins of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh , who had formed the core of the rebellion, were disbanded. New regiments, like the Sikhs and Baluchis, composed of Indians who, in British estimation, had demonstrated steadfastness, were formed. From then on,
8415-484: The British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a princely state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861; however, the issue of sovereignty was left undefined. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, but not part of British India. Although the Indian Rebellion of 1857 had shaken the British enterprise in India, it had not derailed it. Until 1857,
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#17330849425928580-532: The British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act of 1892 . Municipal Corporations and District Boards were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members. The Indian Councils Act 1909 , known as the Morley-Minto Reforms ( John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Minto was viceroy)—gave Indians limited roles in
8745-459: The British, especially under Lord Dalhousie , had been hurriedly building an India which they envisaged to be on par with Britain itself in the quality and strength of its economic and social institutions. After the rebellion, they became more circumspect. Much thought was devoted to the causes of the rebellion and three main lessons were drawn. First, at a practical level, it was felt that there needed to be more communication and camaraderie between
8910-501: The Chenab are usually very sandy, and they usually require successive deposits of silt in order to become good for agriculture. This tendency has led to a saying, "it takes gold and gives copper." The upper Chenab has "enormous powers of erosion" but it works slowly, and its flooding is fairly regular. Compared to the Chenab , the Jhelum contains a much smaller volume of water, and it flows in
9075-497: The Congress primarily debated British policy toward India. Its debates created a new Indian outlook that held Great Britain responsible for draining India of its wealth. Britain did this, the nationalists claimed, by unfair trade, by the restraint on indigenous Indian industry, and by the use of Indian taxes to pay the high salaries of the British civil servants in India. Thomas Baring served as Viceroy of India 1872–1876. Baring's major accomplishments came as an energetic reformer who
9240-463: The Crown). In the three decades since, Muslim leaders across northern India had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. The Arya Samaj , for example, had not only supported Cow Protection Societies in their agitation, but also—distraught at the 1871 Census's Muslim numbers—organized "reconversion" events for the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to
9405-641: The Government of India reporting 379 dead, with 1,100 wounded. The Indian National Congress estimated three times the number of dead. Dyer was removed from duty but he became a celebrated hero in Britain among people with connections to the Raj. Historians consider the episode was a decisive step towards the end of British rule in India. In 1920, after the British government refused to back down, Gandhi began his campaign of non-cooperation , prompting many Indians to return British awards and honours, to resign from
9570-518: The Hindu fold. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around the symbolism of Kali, Muslim fears increased. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, "Bande Mataram", had first appeared in the novel Anand Math in which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors. Lastly, the Muslim elite, and among it Dacca Nawab , Khwaja Salimullah , who hosted
9735-458: The Indian National Congress surprised Raj officials, who previously had seen the Congress as a small elitist body. The British separated Burma Province from British India in 1937 and granted the colony a new constitution calling for a fully elected assembly, with many powers given to the Burmese, but this proved to be a divisive issue as a ploy to exclude Burmese from any further Indian reforms. With
9900-508: The Indian army was to remain unchanged in its organisation until 1947. The 1861 Census had revealed that the English population in India was 125,945. Of these only about 41,862 were civilians as compared with about 84,083 European officers and men of the Army. In 1880, the standing Indian Army consisted of 66,000 British soldiers, 130,000 Natives, and 350,000 soldiers in the princely armies. Second, it
10065-422: The Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil services and the army officer corps. A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of
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#173308494259210230-427: The Jhelum's floods. A distinct feature of the Kachhi is the absence of grass. The soil is clayey, and water does not penetrate it but instead drains off into depressions. The salts left behind prevent the growth of plants, and the surface is barren as a result. The Kachhi does, however, support a "stunted forest" of jal bushes close to the Thal, and karir closer to the river. The upper Chenab, before receiving
10395-402: The League's first meeting in his mansion in Shahbag , was aware that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power. The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members;
10560-401: The Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have the wider following among Indian Muslims that it enjoyed in later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party" Muslims from the United Provinces (UP), most prominently, two brothers Mohammad and Shaukat Ali , who had embraced
10725-429: The Pan-Islamic cause; however, it did have the support of a young lawyer from Bombay, Muhammad Ali Jinnah , who was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority élites of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal; nonetheless, at
10890-452: The Sandal Bar and the Kirana Bar, and historically they were fairly common. Hyenas live here but have never been common. Two types of wild cats live in the district, and both of them are called the bar-billa . One type is distinguished by its long tail and is actually descended from domesticated cats that became feral . It grows larger than domesticated cats, and can run especially fast. The other type, distringuished by its short tail,
11055-444: The Sandal Bar and the district as a whole, the soil gradually gets worse towards the south. In general, the area closest to the river bank is the most fertile, with almost continuous areas of cultivation. There are lots of wells for irrigation, each one surrounded by a cluster of trees (most commonly kikar and shisham ). Going further east, the wells become less frequent and they are interspersed by patches of wasteland. Beyond this
11220-399: The Taliban in October 2012. Dad led campaigns to protect online freedom of speech in Pakistan as well campaigns against legislation that gives the government broad powers of surveillance online, most notable one is the controversial Prevention of Electronic Crimes Bill 2015. She also contributed in the draft of Acid Prevention Law 2010 and the Domestic Violence Bill of Pakistan. In 2015, she
11385-403: The United Nations and the Food and Agricultural Organisation well into the 1970s. By 1880, a new middle class had arisen in India and spread thinly across the country. Moreover, there was a growing solidarity among its members, created by the "joint stimuli of encouragement and irritation". The encouragement felt by this class came from its success in education and its ability to avail itself of
11550-406: The United Provinces had been undertaken, had shown disloyalty, by, in many cases, fighting for their former landlords against the British. Consequently, no more land reforms were implemented for the next 90 years: Bengal and Bihar were to remain the realms of large land holdings (unlike the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh ). Third, the British felt disenchanted with Indian reaction to social change. Until
11715-411: The accompanying declaration, "I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peacetime to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary." In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was, nevertheless, able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of
11880-475: The annual public Ganapati festivals that he inaugurated in western India. The viceroy, Lord Curzon (1899–1905), was unusually energetic in pursuit of efficiency and reform. His agenda included the creation of the North-West Frontier Province ; small changes in the civil services; speeding up the operations of the secretariat; setting up a gold standard to ensure a stable currency; creation of
12045-459: The bahn ( Populus euphratica , locally called the ubhan ), which is found on some river islands, particularly just above the Domel. One of the most significant plants found in Jhang District is the buta ( Tripidium bengalense , syn. Saccharum munja ), which is extremely common in the Chenab valley but not so much along the Jhelum. It gets more common the further south you go. Different parts of
12210-513: The benefits of that education such as employment in the Indian Civil Service . It came too from Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858 in which she had declared, "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligation of duty which bind us to all our other subjects." Indians were especially encouraged when Canada was granted dominion status in 1867 and established an autonomous democratic constitution. Lastly,
12375-427: The bhukil grows in light sandy soil alongside crops, and it "chokes" the crops and kills them. Grasses are important in Jhang District because they form pasturage for livestock. The most common grass in the district is the chhimbar , which thrives in all types of soil. It grows densely, and with good rainfall it can get very tall. Lamb is a feathery grass that grows in kallar . Lunak also grows in kallar ; it
12540-549: The bills early in 1919. However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of "anarchical and revolutionary movements", dropping entirely the second bill involving modification the Indian Penal Code . Even so, when it was passed, the new Rowlatt Act aroused widespread indignation throughout India, and brought Gandhi to
12705-402: The boundary of the Utar zone is the alluvial plain flooded by the river each year. This area is heavily cultivated, mostly for Rabi crops — generally only higher, lighter soils are used to grow autumn crops. The soil in this zone ranges from stiff clay to sand, but usually tends to be a light loam , "easily worked and retentive of moisture." Below Shorkot , the Utar recedes, and instead of
12870-410: The burgeoning Indian markets. Unlike Britain, where the market risks for the infrastructure development were borne by private investors, in India, it was the taxpayers—primarily farmers and farm-labourers—who endured the risks, which, in the end, amounted to £50 million. Despite these costs, very little skilled employment was created for Indians. By 1920, with the fourth largest railway network in
13035-525: The case. Although the British planters eventually gave in, they were not won over to the farmers' cause, and thereby did not produce the optimal outcome of a Satyagraha that Gandhi had hoped for; similarly, the farmers themselves, although pleased at the resolution, responded less than enthusiastically to the concurrent projects of rural empowerment and education that Gandhi had inaugurated in keeping with his ideal of swaraj . The following year Gandhi launched two more Satyagrahas—both in his native Gujarat —one in
13200-456: The central and provincial legislatures. Upper-class Indians, rich landowners and businessmen were favoured. The Muslim community was made a separate electorate and granted double representation. The goals were quite conservative but they did advance the elective principle. The partition of Bengal was rescinded in 1911 and announced at the Delhi Durbar at which King George V came in person and
13365-571: The civil services, and to again boycott British goods. In addition, Gandhi reorganised the Congress, transforming it into a mass movement and opening its membership to even the poorest Indians. Although Gandhi halted the non-cooperation movement in 1922 after the violent incident at Chauri Chaura , the movement revived again, in the mid-1920s. The visit, in 1928, of the British Simon Commission , charged with instituting constitutional reform in India, resulted in widespread protests throughout
13530-468: The clock ... fifty years forward ... (The) reforms after the war will have to be such, ... as will satisfy the aspirations of her (India's) people to take their legitimate part in the administration of their own country." The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by
13695-572: The continuing distrust of Indians resulted in a declining base in terms of quality and quantity. By 1945 Indians were numerically dominant in the ICS and at issue was divided loyalty between the Empire and independence. The finances of the Raj depended on land taxes, and these became problematic in the 1930s. Epstein argues that after 1919 it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue. The Raj's suppression of civil disobedience after 1934 temporarily increased
13860-428: The cooling happens more gradually and people stop using pankhas around early-mid October. With rain, the cold weather begins much more quickly. Like in the rest of Punjab, cold weather in Jhang District is characterised by crisp, fresh mornings; cool, bright days; and frosty nights. Rain generally does not fall during October and November, but it does at the end of December as well as during January and February. By
14025-721: The country, but especially in the Madras Presidency and in regions like Sind and Gujarat that had hitherto been considered politically dormant by the Congress. Both leagues rapidly acquired new members—approximately thirty thousand each in a little over a year—and began to publish inexpensive newspapers. Their propaganda also turned to posters, pamphlets, and political-religious songs, and later to mass meetings, which not only attracted greater numbers than in earlier Congress sessions, but also entirely new social groups such as non- Brahmins , traders, farmers, students, and lower-level government workers. Although they did not achieve
14190-576: The country. Earlier, in 1925, non-violent protests of the Congress had resumed too, this time in Gujarat, and led by Patel, who organised farmers to refuse payment of increased land taxes; the success of this protest, the Bardoli Satyagraha , brought Gandhi back into the fold of active politics. At its annual session in Lahore , the Indian National Congress, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru , issued
14355-448: The cultivation is hidden from view, or only peeps out near a well or where a piece of sailáb cultivation larger than usual is found. Beyond the river rise dark against the horizon the trees growing round villages that fringe the further bank. The climate of Jhang District is the same as the climate for all of southern Punjab. At the start of June, the weather becomes intensely hot, and the kikar and ber trees lose all their leaves due to
14520-498: The direct administration of India by the British crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain. In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced
14685-408: The district from an old mound or eminence has a peaceful beauty peculiar to itself. A sea of yellow grass rippling in the breeze, edged on the west by a silver ribbon of river, are the features that first strike the eye. Dotted over the surface are dark clumps of trees round the wells, and here and there a few groves of date palms. Towards the river long stretches of wheat are to be seen, while nearer in
14850-461: The district, the Sandal Bar "rises abruptly from the Utar, and the summit of the dividing ledge is from 10 to 30 feet above the plain below." This sudden rise gradually lessens further south, until eventually there is no clear distinction between the Bar and the Utar. The quality of the soil generally decreases towards the south, with Kallar plains more frequent, and the better types of grass such as dhaman also become rarer. The Kirana Bar, which
15015-432: The district." Immediately downstream from the Domel, the lower Chenab begins to flood a much larger area. Large islands (called bela s or bindi s) form much more frequently than they do upstream. There are many channels of the river that are dry during cold weather and fill up with water whenever the water level rises. A thick lai jangal grows along the riverbank, mixed with patches of cropland. Between this band and
15180-434: The district; it gets used to make rafters for houses. Other trees that are found in Jhang District include the siris ( Acacia speciosa ), which is rare but gives good shade; the bohar ( Ficus indica ), which is found throughout the district but especially thrives near the rivers; the pipal ( Ficus religiosa ), which is found throughout the district but less commonly than the bohar; the bakain ( Melia azaderach ); and
15345-466: The effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920. Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis, and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces, a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation. The global influenza epidemic and
15510-418: The encouragement came from the work of contemporaneous Oriental scholars like Monier Monier-Williams and Max Müller , who in their works had been presenting ancient India as a great civilisation. Irritation, on the other hand, came not just from incidents of racial discrimination at the hands of the British in India, but also from governmental actions like the use of Indian troops in imperial campaigns (e.g. in
15675-472: The end of March, it gets noticeably warmer; April and May are both hot and dry. The most common tree in Jhang District is the kikar ( Acacia arabica ), especially in the Hithar zone along the Jhelum and Chenab rivers. It grows quickly, which is the main reason why it is generally preferred as a wood tree. It is vulnerable to frost when young, but less so when mature. The tree's pods and loppings from pruning are readily eaten by sheep and goats. Kikar wood
15840-533: The face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the Lucknow Pact and the founding of the Home Rule leagues , and the realisation, after the disaster in the Mesopotamian campaign , that the war would likely last longer, the new viceroy, Lord Chelmsford , cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion. Towards the end of the year, after discussions with
16005-436: The fertile soil of the Hithar. It is considered unlucky to cut down a ber, and its fruit is held in high regard. The fruit ripens around March, and it has an acidic taste. The ukanh ( Tamarix orientalis ), also called the farash or the khagal, is not common except in the Bars and the Kachhi. In the Kachhi, ukanh are usually gnarled and stunted except around wells, and they are usually not chosen to be planted by people. In
16170-564: The forefront of the nationalist movement. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre or "Amritsar massacre", took place in the Jallianwala Bagh public garden in the predominantly Sikh northern city of Amritsar . After days of unrest Brigadier-General Reginald E.H. Dyer forbade public meetings and on Sunday 13 April 1919 fifty British Indian Army soldiers commanded by Dyer began shooting at an unarmed gathering of thousands of men, women, and children without warning. Casualty estimates vary widely, with
16335-502: The form predominantly of the Swadeshi ("buy Indian") campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee , and involved boycott of British goods. The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan Bande Mataram ("Hail to the Mother"), which invoked a mother goddess, who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddess Kali . Sri Aurobindo never went beyond
16500-519: The founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca . Although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. The Muslim elite's position, which was reflected in the League's position, had crystallized gradually over the previous three decades, beginning with the revelations of
16665-401: The full control of their hereditary rulers, with no popular government. To prepare for elections Congress built up its grass roots membership from 473,000 in 1935 to 4.5 million in 1939. In the 1937 elections Congress won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India. Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. The widespread voter support for
16830-508: The government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith—in light of the Indian war role—through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty, but, most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. After more discussion, in August 1917,
16995-467: The heat. A hot wind blows consistently from the south and southwest throughout the month of June; the wind becomes more variable with the onset of the monsoon . Until the last few days in June, the nights are somewhat cooler than the days, and from that point on both day and night are very hot. The monsoon rains generally start by mid-July, and then they fall constantly with few if any pauses. The rains bring
17160-475: The instance of the remarriage of Hindu child widows). This was exemplified further in Queen Victoria's Proclamation released immediately after the rebellion. The proclamation stated that 'We disclaim alike our Right and Desire to impose Our Convictions on any of Our Subjects'; demonstrating official British commitment to abstaining from social intervention in India. In the second half of the 19th century, both
17325-483: The island at that time (now Sri Lanka ) was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens . These coastal regions were temporarily administered under Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, but for later periods the British governors reported to London, and it was not part of the Raj. The kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan , having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by
17490-406: The jal tree's roots, and camels like to eat its leaves during the first part of the hot season. The jal is well-regarded for giving good shade. Historically, cattle thieves in the Bars would frequently hide stolen animals under jal trees. The jal does not make good firewood — it produces "an enormous quantity of ash", it stinks when burned, and it doesn't give off much heat. The pilu fruit, though,
17655-447: The karir, and cows will do so as well when other food is hard to come by. It has a pinkish-white flower called the bata, as well as a berry called the dehla. The dehla is eaten when ripe, but not extensively, and it is nowhere near as esteemed as ber or pilu fruit. The unripe berries are pickled or made into a tonic for horses. Karir wood is less susceptible (but not immune) to infestation by white ants than other types of wood found in
17820-534: The law when he edited the Bande Mataram magazine; it preached independence but within the bounds of peace as far as possible. Its goal was Passive Resistance. The unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when students returned home to their villages and towns. Some joined local political youth clubs emerging in Bengal at the time, some engaged in robberies to fund arms, and even attempted to take
17985-594: The leaders of the Indian National Congress , the war led to calls for greater self-government for Indians. At the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and Mesopotamia , had led the previous viceroy, Lord Harding , to worry about the "risks involved in denuding India of troops". Revolutionary violence had already been a concern in British India; consequently, in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw
18150-412: The lives of Raj officials. However, the conspiracies generally failed in the face of intense police work. The Swadeshi boycott movement cut imports of British textiles by 25%. The swadeshi cloth, although more expensive and somewhat less comfortable than its Lancashire competitor, was worn as a mark of national pride by people all over India. The overwhelming, but predominantly Hindu, protest against
18315-551: The magnitude or character of a nationwide mass movement, the Home Rule leagues both deepened and widened organised political agitation for self-rule in India. The British authorities reacted by imposing restrictions on the Leagues, including shutting out students from meetings and banning the two leaders from travelling to certain provinces. The year 1915 also saw the return of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to India. Already known in India as
18480-447: The most important is the munj, which gets made into rope . Kanh ( Saccharum spontaneum ) is only found in the moistest areas along the rivers. It makes the thickest jangal in the district, and it is especially liked by buffaloes for grazing as well as by wild pigs. It gets used to make pens, but not for thatching because it's too valuable. Lana, lani, and khar are all found in Jhang District, and they are all eaten by camels. Khar
18645-536: The most part, the Utar on the west side of the Chenab is the same as the Utar on the east. There is a similar band of well-based agriculture on this side. Further west, in the Shah Jiwana taluka, the landscape changes to become either partially covered by sparse sar grass or otherwise bare kallar plains. The lowest part of the triangle between the Jhelum and the Chenab is called the Vichanh, which "may be described as
18810-453: The name Chenab, and it leaves the district just to the east of the far southwestern corner of that triangle. The geography of the Jhang district can be divided into several regions, based on the course of its two major rivers. First is the Hithar, or lowland areas that get flooded annually by the rivers. Next, there are three distinct upland areas: the Sandal Bar , to the east of the Chenab,
18975-429: The new British-founded universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, and familiar with the ideas of British political philosophers, especially the utilitarians assembled in Bombay — founded the Indian National Congress . The 70 men elected Womesh Chunder Bonerjee as the first president. The membership consisted of a westernised elite, and no effort was made at this time to broaden the base. During its first 20 years,
19140-475: The new Liberal secretary of state for India, Edwin Montagu , announced the British aim of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire". Although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in
19305-614: The newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption. The railway network provided critical famine relief, notably reduced the cost of moving goods, and helped nascent Indian-owned industry. After, the Great Famine of 1876–1878 , The Indian Famine Commission report was issued in 1880, and the Indian Famine Codes , the earliest famine scales and programmes for famine prevention, were instituted. In one form or other, they would be implemented worldwide by
19470-419: The northeastern side. The district is traversed by two major rivers, the Jhelum and the Chenab . The Chenab, generally flowing towards the southwest, runs right down the middle of the district, practically dividing the district into two equal parts. The Jhelum enters Jhang District to the west of the Chenab and flows almost due south until it meets the Chenab at a place called Domel. The combined river takes
19635-464: The oldest, and they are all of alluvial origins. Historically, the upland zones were mostly inhabited by pastoralists who grazed their herds on the wide plains here. They lived in temporary habitations of thatched huts and moved around frequently. Under the British Raj , most of this land was held directly by the government. The easternmost upland area is the Sandal Bar. In the northern parts of
19800-415: The only greenery in sight. Grass does grow abundantly after a good rain, but good rains only happen rarely. The Utar zone is very important from a human perspective because it contains most of the district's settlements. The characteristics of this zone vary somewhat between several different areas: This area varies in width from 4 to 16 miles, with the average usually being about 8 miles wide. As with
19965-469: The partition of Bengal and the fear in its wake of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, led the Muslim elite in India to meet with the new viceroy, Lord Minto in 1906 and to ask for separate electorates for Muslims. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to
20130-405: The plant go by different names: the leaves are called sar , the flower stems are called kana and tili , and the stem sheaths are called munj . In October and November, before the kana stems are cut, they crowd one's view, and the difference after they are cut is "astonishing". During the cold season, cattle almost exclusively eat these plants. Every part of the buta plant has human uses, but
20295-483: The power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial. With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By the end of 1919, 1.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war. The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had
20460-561: The power of the revenue agents but after 1937 they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provincial governments to hand back confiscated land. Again the outbreak of war strengthened them, in the face of the Quit India movement the revenue collectors had to rely on military force and by 1946–47 direct British control was rapidly disappearing in much of the countryside. In 1935, after the Round Table Conferences, Parliament passed
20625-539: The provinces—with India emphatically within the British Empire—it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony. Montagu and Chelmsford presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter. After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for
20790-515: The provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control. Its scope was unsatisfactory to the Indian political leadership, famously expressed by Annie Besant as something "unworthy of England to offer and India to accept". In 1917, as Montagu and Chelmsford were compiling their report,
20955-562: The purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act 1919 (also known as the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms ) was passed in December 1919. The new Act enlarged both the provincial and Imperial legislative councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes. Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income-tax were retained by
21120-401: The rebellion, they had enthusiastically pushed through social reform, like the ban on sati by Lord William Bentinck . It was now felt that traditions and customs in India were too strong and too rigid to be changed easily; consequently, no more British social interventions were made, especially in matters dealing with religion, even when the British felt very strongly about the issue (as in
21285-464: The reform process by extremists, and since its reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased governmental control, it also began to consider how some of its wartime powers could be extended into peacetime. After the 1906 split between the moderates and the extremists in the Indian National Congress , organised political activity by the Congress had remained fragmented until 1914, when Bal Gangadhar Tilak
21450-414: The removal of untouchability from Indian society; and the exercise of swadeshi —the boycott of manufactured foreign goods and the revival of Indian cottage industry . The first two, he felt, were essential for India to be an egalitarian and tolerant society, one befitting the principles of Truth and Ahimsa , while the last, by making Indians more self-reliant, would break the cycle of dependence that
21615-437: The river's course. In areas where the banks are fairly close together, the whole area between them is reliably flooded each year. In areas where the river has eroded more of the Utar and the banks are farther apart, however, the flood patterns are less predictable. In these places, in order to ensure that the water floods fields, people set up embankments across the nala s to raise the water level. The deposits left behind by
21780-400: The river. To the east, farther away from the Jhelum, is an infertile zone with lots of kallar , and then comes the Kirana Bar. No clear high ridge separates this part of the Kirana Bar from the Utar. The kallar plains of the border area are interspersed by some patches of fertile soil, such as the one around the village of Bhairo . The Utar between the Thal and the Jhelum is also called
21945-502: The rural Kaira district where land-owning farmers were protesting increased land-revenue and the other in the city of Ahmedabad , where workers in an Indian-owned textile mill were distressed about their low wages. The satyagraha in Ahmedabad took the form of Gandhi fasting and supporting the workers in a strike, which eventually led to a settlement. In Kaira, in contrast, although the farmers' cause received publicity from Gandhi's presence,
22110-523: The satyagraha itself, which consisted of the farmers' collective decision to withhold payment, was not immediately successful, as the British authorities refused to back down. The agitation in Kaira gained for Gandhi another lifelong lieutenant in Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel , who had organised the farmers, and who too would go on to play a leadership role in the Indian independence movement. In 1916, in
22275-495: The sea and making their own salt by evaporating seawater. Although, many, including Gandhi, were arrested, the British government eventually gave in, and in 1931 Gandhi travelled to London to negotiate new reform at the Round Table Conferences . In local terms, British control rested on the Indian Civil Service (ICS), but it faced growing difficulties. Fewer and fewer young men in Britain were interested in joining, and
22440-665: The smoke nuisance in Calcutta. Trouble emerged for Curzon when he divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India, the Bengal Province , into the Muslim-majority province of Eastern Bengal and Assam and the Hindu-majority province of West Bengal (present-day Indian states of West Bengal , Bihar , and Odisha ). Curzon's act, the Partition of Bengal , had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since
22605-422: The south, and the Utar becomes more narrow. Traces of river action are more common here, with more depressions and sand dunes. At the far southern end of the district is a distinct area formed by relatively recent river activity; the soil here is light and sandy, and the water table is very high and close to the surface. Areas here that are not under cultivated are covered by a dense growth of sar grass . For
22770-446: The superiority of this new form of organised agitation, which had achieved some success in the Irish home rule movement , over the political violence that had intermittently plagued the subcontinent during the years 1907–1914. The two Leagues focused their attention on complementary geographical regions: Tilak's in western India, in the southern Bombay presidency , and Besant's in the rest of
22935-531: The technological change then rampant in Great Britain, India too saw the rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India, and telegraph links were equally rapidly established so that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland, could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay , for subsequent export to England. Likewise, finished goods from England, were transported back for sale in
23100-459: The time of Lord William Bentinck, but was never acted upon. Though some considered it administratively felicitous, it was communally charged. It sowed the seeds of division among Indians in Bengal, transforming nationalist politics as nothing else before it. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants, protested fervidly. Following
23265-417: The time, the "Lucknow Pact" was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen as such by the British. During 1916, two Home Rule Leagues were founded within the Indian National Congress by Tilak and Annie Besant , respectively, to promote Home Rule among Indians, and also to elevate the stature of the founders within the Congress itself. Besant, for her part, was also keen to demonstrate
23430-541: The total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of "communal representation", an integral part of
23595-618: The underlying soil only pokes out in patches. The main colour of the soil here is a light reddish brown. Well -based agriculture is done in other parts of the Thal closer to the Indus , but due to the lack of access to water, there is little to no cultivation in the parts of the Thal included in Jhang district. For the most part, this part of the Thal is a wasteland, dominated by rolling sand hills that run parallel to each other. These are interspersed with occasional patches of good soil studded with pilu bushes, which along with some trees form just about
23760-407: The wan or pilu, is very common throughout the district, with the largest trees generally being found in the Kachhi and the Bars. It is known by all three names, but its fruit is exclusively called pilu. There are two kinds of jal tree: the kaura jal and the miththa jal. The kaura jal's leaves are much darker, longer, and wider than the mitha jal's leaves. Cobras especially like to hide under
23925-517: The wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since the Turkish Sultan , or Khalifah , had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of Mecca , Medina , and Jerusalem , and since the British and their allies were now in conflict with Turkey, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality" of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as
24090-450: The waters of the Jhelum at the Domel, is "a broad shallow stream, with a sluggish current and a licentious course. Its deposits are sandy, but its flood is extensive, and from the loose texture of the soil on its banks, the moisture penetrates far inland." The upper Chenab is contained between two well-defined banks and it rarely spills over them except at certain known points. The width between these two banks varies significantly throughout
24255-459: The west of the Kirana Hills, towards the Jhelum river, and more kallar soil is found. Not much of the Thal is included in Jhang District, although the district boundary juts out further to include more of it south of the road connecting Jhang with Dera Ismail Khan . The Thal is an elevated plateau like the Bars, but with one major difference — it is almost completely covered in sand dunes, and
24420-494: The whims of those markets, lost land, animals, and equipment to money-lenders. The latter half of the 19th century also saw an increase in the number of large-scale famines in India . Although famines were not new to the subcontinent, these were particularly severe, with tens of millions dying, and with many critics, both British and Indian, laying the blame at the doorsteps of the lumbering colonial administrations. There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in
24585-524: The world and a history of 60 years of its construction, only ten per cent of the "superior posts" in the Indian Railways were held by Indians. The rush of technology was also changing the agricultural economy in India: by the last decade of the 19th century, a large fraction of some raw materials—not only cotton, but also some food-grains—were being exported to faraway markets. Many small farmers, dependent on
24750-444: The years 1907–1914, Gandhi tested the technique of Satyagraha in a number of protests on behalf of the Indian community in South Africa against the unjust racial laws. Also, during his time in South Africa, in his essay, Hind Swaraj , (1909), Gandhi formulated his vision of Swaraj , or "self-rule" for India based on three vital ingredients: solidarity between Indians of different faiths, but most of all between Hindus and Muslims;
24915-605: Was partitioned into two sovereign dominion states: the Union of India (later the Republic of India ) and Pakistan (later the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ). Later, the People's Republic of Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan. At the inception of the Raj in 1858, Lower Burma was already a part of British India; Upper Burma was added in 1886, and the resulting union, Burma ,
25080-567: Was a gap which had to be filled by the production of those goods in India itself. Bal Gangadhar Tilak said that the Swadeshi and Boycott movements are two sides of the same coin. The large Bengali Hindu middle-class (the Bhadralok ), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas, felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political assertiveness. The pervasive protests against Curzon's decision took
25245-630: Was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the Defence of India Act 1915 , which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process, and added to the power it already had under the Indian Press Act of 1910 to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press. It was under the Defence of India act that the Ali brothers were imprisoned in 1916, and Annie Besant ,
25410-422: Was administered as an autonomous province until 1937, when it became a separate British colony, gaining its own independence in 1948. It was renamed Myanmar in 1989. The Chief Commissioner's Province of Aden was also part of British India at the inception of the British Raj, and became a separate colony known as Aden Colony in 1937 as well. As India , it was a founding member of the League of Nations , and
25575-517: Was also felt that both the princes and the large land-holders, by not joining the rebellion, had proved to be, in Lord Canning's words, "breakwaters in a storm". They too were rewarded in the new British Raj by being integrated into the British-Indian political system and having their territories guaranteed. At the same time, it was felt that the peasants, for whose benefit the large land reforms of
25740-455: Was crowned Emperor of India . He announced the capital would be moved from Calcutta to Delhi. This period saw an increase in the activities of revolutionary groups , which included Bengal's Anushilan Samiti and the Punjab's Ghadar Party . However, the British authorities were able to crush violent rebels swiftly, partly because the mainstream of educated Indian politicians opposed violent revolution. The First World War would prove to be
25905-461: Was dedicated to upgrading the quality of government in the British Raj. He began large scale famine relief, reduced taxes, and overcame bureaucratic obstacles in an effort to reduce both starvation and widespread social unrest. Although appointed by a Liberal government, his policies were much the same as viceroys appointed by Conservative governments. Social reform was in the air by the 1880s. For example, Pandita Ramabai , poet, Sanskrit scholar, and
26070-550: Was given separate representation in the Provincial Legislative Assemblies. A voter could cast a vote only for candidates in his own category. The 1935 Act provided for more autonomy for Indian provinces, with the goal of cooling off nationalist sentiment. The act provided for a national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government, but the rulers of the princely states managed to block its implementation. These states remained under
26235-403: Was invited by a group of disgruntled tenant farmers who, for many years, had been forced into planting indigo (for dyes) on a portion of their land and then selling it at below-market prices to the British planters who had leased them the land. Upon his arrival in the district, Gandhi was joined by other agitators, including a young Congress leader, Rajendra Prasad , from Bihar, who would become
26400-454: Was made a member of the UNSG's new AI Advisory Board. Jhang District Jhang District ( Punjabi and Urdu : ضلع جھنگ ) is a district of Faisalabad division in the Punjab province, Pakistan. Jhang city is the capital and administrative seat of the district. Jhang District has a triangle-like shape, with its apex at the narrow southwestern corner and its base on
26565-719: Was named in the TIME magazine's list of Next Generation Leaders , for helping Pakistani women fight online harassment. In 2016, she was awarded the Atlantic Council Digital Freedom Award and Dutch government's Human Rights Tulip award. She is also one of the 25 leading figures on the Information and Democracy Commission launched by Reporters Without Borders . In November 2018 she joined The Tor Project 's board of directors. On 6 May 2020, Facebook appointed her to its content oversight board . In 2023, Nighat Dad
26730-615: Was perpetuating not only the direction and tenor of the British rule in India, but also the British commitment to it. At least until 1920, the British presence itself was not a stumbling block in Gandhi's conception of swaraj ; rather, it was the inability of Indians to create a modern society. Gandhi made his political debut in India in 1917 in Champaran district in Bihar , near the Nepal border, where he
26895-420: Was released from prison and began to sound out other Congress leaders about possible reunification. That, however, had to wait until the demise of Tilak's principal moderate opponents, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta , in 1915, whereupon an agreement was reached for Tilak's ousted group to re-enter the Congress. In the 1916 Lucknow session of the Congress, Tilak's supporters were able to push through
27060-425: Was sufficiently diverse to be a microcosm of India itself. In tackling the challenge of holding this community together and simultaneously confronting the colonial authority, he had created a technique of non-violent resistance, which he labelled Satyagraha (or Striving for Truth). For Gandhi, Satyagraha was different from " passive resistance ", by then a familiar technique of social protest, which he regarded as
27225-604: Was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent , lasting from 1858 to 1947. It is also called Crown rule in India , or Direct rule in India . The region under British control was commonly called India in contemporaneous usage and included areas directly administered by the United Kingdom , which were collectively called British India , and areas ruled by indigenous rulers, but under British paramountcy , called
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