Diana Veteranorum , today a village called Ain Zana (Aïn Zana), was an ancient Roman - Berber city in Algeria . It was located around 40 km northwest of Lambaesis and 85 km southwest of Cirta .
121-480: Diana Veteranorum was founded in the connection with the settling of Roman veterans of the Legio III Augusta in northern Africa under the emperor Trajan (98-117). Originally probably only Roman vicus with a police station and a community council (described as rest publica Dianensium in an early inscription). It was later promoted to a municipium , but there's some debate, when that actually happened. While it
242-601: A cohort of the 3rd legion. Its commander, one Decrius (presumably the cohort's most senior centurion - the pilus prior or "front spear" centurion), "considered it disgraceful that Roman legionaries should sit besieged by a rabble of deserters and tramps", Tacitus reports. Decrius ordered a sortie. His troops tried to break through the besiegers, but were soon forced back by the far superior numbers of enemy. Decrius, cursing his standard-bearers for not standing their ground, shouted at his men to follow him. Although struck by arrows in one eye and in several other places, he rushed at
363-501: A basic interpretation and timeline for the events and doings of the Legion, but does not provide a bibliography. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/legion.htm Tacfarinas Tacfarinas ( Latinised form of Berber Tikfarin or Takfarin ; died AD 24) was a Numidian Berber from Thagaste , located in the province of Proconsular Africa (now Souk Ahras , in Algeria ), who
484-498: A close friend of Caesar's grand-nephew Octavian , who assumed the title of Augustus after he became sole ruler of the Roman empire in 30 BC. Caesar's settlement was modified in 25 BC by Augustus. He placed Juba II on the vacant throne of Mauretania, and added to it the southern and eastern parts of Africa Nova. Juba thus nominally ruled a vast realm stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in
605-548: A deserter and common brigand should be demanding terms like a foreign head of state. The offer was dismissed and Tacfarinas resumed hostilities. Tiberius now demanded that the Senate appoint an especially experienced general to command in Africa so that Tacfarinas could be dealt with once and for all. The man selected by Tiberius was Quintus Junius Blaesus , a veteran who as governor of Pannonia had narrowly escaped lynching by his troops in
726-589: A distance, were jolted awake by the clamour of Roman trumpets sounding the charge. The Romans attacked the camp in full battle-order as the disorganised Numidians scrambled to pick up their weapons and to find their horses. The complete surprise resulted in a massacre, made all the bloodier by the Romans' lust for revenge after years of hardship and humiliation. Acting on strict orders, the Roman centurions directed their men against Tacfarinas himself. The latter and his entourage were soon surrounded by overwhelming numbers, and in
847-531: A distinct system. Since these roads were commonly built for the use of military movement, they needed to be kept as straight (for speed of movement) and as safe as possible (Therefore where possible built on higher ground, avoiding valleys). Due to the higher location, some roads were even built with a system to drain water. Calculations estimate that the total length of roads in North Africa during Roman rule reached about 19,300 kilometres. Other important roads for
968-509: A division of specially selected men into a Roman-style force, Mazippa led his traditional light-armed Mauri horsemen on devastating raids deep into Roman-occupied territory. By AD 17, the Roman proconsul of Africa, Marcus Furius Camillus was in a quandary. The threat to his province was now far more serious than the usual border raiding by the desert tribes. But while Tacfarinas relied on hit-and-run raids, he had little effective response. Although Camillus' own forces (the 3rd legion and at least
1089-476: A far more popular ruler than on his succession sixteen years earlier, when thousands of his Mauri subjects had defected to Tacfarinas. His execution sparked a massive anti-Roman revolt under one Aedemon , who is described as a freed slave in Roman sources but was more likely a Mauri prince. For the Roman military, the revolt proved as arduous as that of Tacfarinas and its suppression required the services of Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta , two of
1210-483: A fierce fight his bodyguards were killed and his son taken prisoner. Recognising that this time there was no possibility of escape, Tacfarinas impaled himself on the massed spears of his assailants. The death of Tacfarinas put an end to Musulamii hopes of halting the Roman takeover of their traditional grazing lands. The registration of the whole plateau for tax purposes was launched by Dolabella immediately after Tacfarinas' demise and completed in 29/30 AD, as evidenced by
1331-612: A former Roman soldier turned Musulamii guerrilla leader. Tacfarinas is an example of the multiple rebellions against the expansion of the Roman Empire through military establishment and geographical positioning as well as the adequate and tactful response by the Third Augustan Legion. The Berber tribes attacked the Augustan Legion when they were particularly vulnerable. It is reported that the first attacks were in 14 AD when
SECTION 10
#17330943276811452-448: A general pardon to any of Tacfarinas' associates who surrendered - but not to Tacfarinas himself, who was to be captured or killed at all costs. Installed in Africa, Blaesus issued his amnesty offer, which was successful in bringing over many of Tacfarinas' war-weary allies. The new proconsul also employed innovative tactics to deal with his elusive enemy. With a doubled contingent, he was able to cover Tacfarinas' various entry routes into
1573-412: A high level of prosperity within this veteran settlement. Life after the military was apparently not as harsh as life in the military. The town's paved streets can still be walked on today, and it is possible to see the numerous public buildings as well. A library, a large theater (seating between 4000–5000 people) and most notably an amazing forum are all still standing. Trajan's arch is also visible. This
1694-419: A legate in the legion and the officer who (mis)used his legion to attack Gordian. For this reason, Gordian III disbanded the legion. In 252, Valerian reformed the legion to deal with the "five people groups", a dangerous coalition of Berber tribes. The legion prevailed in 260 but the threat remained, and fortifications of Lambaesis were expanded over the following years. In 289, the struggle began again and
1815-400: A legion into several vexillations and place them at separate fortresses. For the most part, whole legions were not moved into Africa but rather, small vexillations were formed from the armies of Germany and Pannonia and sent to help when needed. The Roman military presence in North Africa was not always accepted or welcomed. Most notably in opposition to the Roman institution was Tacfarinas ,
1936-402: A number of years. At some point during his term of military service, Tacfarinas deserted. Gathering around him a band of marauders, he carried out many minor raids on Roman territory. Using his experience of the Roman military, he organised his ever-growing following into distinct units, to the point where he commanded an effective armed force. A political turning-point for Tacfarinas came when
2057-400: A part. The Garamantes, fearing that their own clandestine support for Tacfarinas may have been revealed to the Romans, despatched an embassy to Rome to protest their loyalty, although it is unknown how successfully. Ptolemy, king of Mauretania, was rewarded for his real loyalty by the title rex, socius et amicus populi Romani ("king, ally and friend of the Roman people" i.e. puppet-king). As
2178-464: A salutary effect", according to Tacitus: at the next fort to come under attack by Tacfarinas, Thala ( Thala , Tunisia, the site of a Roman victory over an earlier Numidian rebel leader, Jugurtha , some 120 years before), the garrison of 500 elderly veterans beat off the assailants. The reverse at Thala impressed on Tacfarinas the difficulty of conducting conventional operations against the Romans. So he reverted to guerrilla tactics, retreating before
2299-524: A soldier in the Third Augustan during this time spent his days securing food, fuel, fodder, and completing general duties of camp life. They rebuilt structures, built roads, and repaired equipment. It is likely that they went out on routine patrols of the countryside. The Legio III Augusta built the thirty-nine kilometers of the Lambaesis aqueduct in eight months, and the Legion or its temporary successor kept
2420-475: A special token of esteem, the ancient ritual was revived, whereby the title was conferred in person by a Roman senator, who travelled to the king's capital with an accompanying gift of triumphal regalia : an ivory baton and a toga picta (all purple, with embroidered gold border). Ironically, that same toga eventually caused Ptolemy's downfall, according to the Roman historian Suetonius . Many years later, in AD 40,
2541-407: Is doubtful that this implied a desire by Tacfarinas' men to become sedentary farmers. More likely, they simply sought restored access to their traditional grazing grounds. If his demands were not met, Tacfarinas warned, he would wage a war without end on the Romans. Although this was probably a serious offer, Tiberius was outraged. He considered it the height of impudence that a man whom he regarded as
SECTION 20
#17330943276812662-422: Is established that Diana Veteranorum was a municipium latest by 162, a later discovered inscription suggests that it has been a municipium in 149 already and Jacques Gascou concludes from this inscription that the original promotion happened under Trajan even. Around 161/162 AD, during the governorship of D. Fonteius Frontinianus the city of Diana Veteranorum was granted the status of a municipium . In 164/165 AD
2783-469: Is known about Tacfarinas' family background and early life, except that he was probably a member of the Musulamii tribe of Numidians and apparently not of royal or noble birth. Presumably, when he reached military age (i.e. around 20 years old), he enlisted in a Roman auxiliary regiment. It is unclear whether he volunteered or was conscripted, or whether he joined a cavalry or infantry regiment. He served for
2904-415: Is recorded as having built a new road southeast to Tacapae (Gabès) on the coast. Hand-in-hand with the Roman infrastructural expansion came the fencing off of land that was converted from pasture to wheat cultivation. The Romans also pursued a policy of deliberately restricting the transhumance movements of the nomads into the province. The Tunisian plateau was also the traditional summer grazing region of
3025-430: The mensor , whose position was comparable to that of a contractor, and he was in charge of overseeing the production. His main purpose was to assist in the layout of Roman camps and towns, and he directed the use of measuring instruments. One of the most commonly used devices was a groma which helped with the measurement of right angles. However, the mensor and the legionaries were not always experts so
3146-517: The Roman empire . In that year, it was deployed in the Roman province of Africa , where it remained until at least the late 4th century AD. The Legio III Augusta was placed in Africa to ensure a steady grain supply to Rome. Under Augustus, the African Proconsul had command over it and several other legions. By the end of Tiberius's reign , it was the only legion in Africa. Under Caligula , command of
3267-572: The blockhouses used by the British to suppress the Boer insurgency in the latter, guerilla phase of the South African War of 1899-1902, virtually extinguished Tacfarinas' raiding operations. Blaesus' campaign achieved its crowning success in AD 22, when his men captured Tacfarinas' brother. After this, Blaesus withdrew his troops to normal winter quarters in the province. Tiberius accepted this as marking
3388-422: The legate C. Maesius Picatianus issued the construction of a memorial arch for the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus . During these years, Diana Veteranorum saw various construction and renovation measures, however, it is not entirely clear which actual buildings were subject to them. In 217, a triumphal arch was erected for the emperor Macrinus . A Christian community with a bishop existed since
3509-677: The Legio III Augusta happened in 14 AD: It connected their base in Ammaedara, through Thelepte , all the way to the Oasis of Gafsa. Further expansion occurred under the rule of Tiberius with a road from the Oasis of Gafsa to the Oasis of Gabes. Between these two cities, the Legion stopped for rest and created five stations. The Legion sometimes followed the previously existing paved road or hard-packed dirt tracks between Punic or Berber towns, but they mainly created new roads. Their construction followed
3630-462: The Legio III Augusta included the one linking Tebessa to the port of Hippo Regius . Its construction was imperative for more efficient delivery of supplies to the Legion and town. Another was the road from Tébessa (Tebessa) to Carthage ; both roads were built during Vespasian 's reign. Finally, a road built under Trajan ran south across the mountains of the Gulf of Syrte. The strategic importance of
3751-434: The Legion had just completed its first road building project. The timing suggests that the Third Augustan Legion had not yet established its roots or an approving reputation. This first revolt was swiftly put down. However, just three years later Tacfarinas started his attacks against the Romans. The guerrilla warfare tactics combined with Tacfarinas' novel approach to attack from the rear, created additional difficulties for
Diana Veteranorum - Misplaced Pages Continue
3872-589: The Mauretanian king wore it on a state visit to Rome as guest of the emperor Caligula (ruled 37–41). When the two leaders entered the amphitheatre together, the toga and its owner were accorded much admiration by the crowd. In an apparent fit of envy, the deranged emperor ordered Ptolemy's immediate execution. Beyond Suetonius' superficial explanation, it is likely that the Roman government was becoming concerned by Ptolemy's growing wealth and independence of action and that his removal from power, if not outright execution,
3993-435: The Roman military camp. The Via Septimiana —a road built under the reign of Septimius Severus in the town of Lambaesis - illustrates this with the presence of a Triple Arch, marking the boundary where the Third Augustan Legion was within its military zone. The members of the Third Augustan Legion did not solely consist of military men. The Emperors made an effort to recruit some men that were experts in surveying and
4114-533: The Roman province, calling it Africa Nova ("New Africa"). This, however, dispossessed the ancient pro-Roman dynasty of Numidian kings founded by Massinissa , whose decision during the Second Punic War to switch allegiance from Carthage had been critical to the decisive Roman victory at the Battle of Zama 158 years earlier. The Numidian king's young son, Juba II , was brought up and educated at Rome, where he became
4235-615: The Roman province. In winter, this region contained plentiful freshwater in the form of seasonal torrents from the Aurès mountains to the North. These tribes included the Gaetuli , Musulamii , and Garamantes , as well as the nomadic elements of the Mauri. Africa Vetus ("Old Africa"), the land territory of Phoenician Carthage (roughly corresponding to modern northeastern Tunisia ), fell into Roman hands after
4356-407: The Roman world. A Numidian cavalryman rode his small but agile and resilient desert mount without bridle, saddle, or stirrups, restraining it by a loose rope round its neck and directing it by leg movements and voice commands. Unarmoured, he was protected by just a small round leather shield. His weaponry consisted of several javelins. Exceptionally fast and manoeuvrable, Numidian cavalry would harass
4477-532: The Third Augustan Legion in their efforts to defeat Tacfarinas. The manner in which Tacfarinas led his rebellions was of particular concern to the Third Augustan Legion. At first, Tacfarinas did not appear to be a great threat; his initial band of fighters was composed mainly of robbers and rebels. However, Tacfarinas' band of robbers soon gained the expertise and precision of the Roman Army. Tacfarinas traveled through North Africa collecting Roman soldiers left behind by
4598-464: The Third Augustan Legion; Tacitus describes this process as a "cherry picking " of sorts, using soldiers who had already been trained by the Roman army and using their skills against their creator. Tacfarinas created a new coalition from the collected Roman soldiers and North African citizens looking to rebel against the expansion of the Roman Empire into the Musulamii people, under his sole command. With
4719-403: The accuracy of the groma only helped to a certain extent. When this happened, surveyors had to be recalled for recalculations. There is a well-preserved inscription depicting this situation in Africa. The surveyor, Nonius Datus, wrote about his encounters with the Third Augustan Legion and how he had carefully surveyed, taken the measures of all the mountains and mapped out the axis for which
4840-547: The actual date of its final disbandment is unknown. The Third Augustan Legion was not only a source of protection for the Roman Empire, but also largely responsible for the urbanization of the North African provinces. The Legion was initially stationed in Ammaedara (modern-day Haïdra ) where they built their first military camp. From there. the legionaries invested part of their time in the construction of roads, bringing with it
4961-485: The advancing Romans, then attacking their supply-lines in the rear. The Romans were soon exhausted and frustrated, unable to respond effectively. Eventually, however, the sheer volume of plunder that Tacfarinas had taken forced him to adopt a more stable base, near the Mediterranean coast in the puppet-state of Mauretania. Here he was surprised by a flying column of auxiliary cavalry and special light-armed legionaries under
Diana Veteranorum - Misplaced Pages Continue
5082-444: The allied cavalry acting as scouts, criss-crossing between the main columns. These tactics soon paid off, as the crucial intelligence was obtained that Tacfarinas had established a camp near the half-ruined fort of Auzea ( Sour El-Ghozlane , SE of Algiers ), which Tacfarinas' men had themselves previously burnt down. Well to the west of the Roman province, the site was surrounded by extensive forests and Tacfarinas evidently discounted
5203-460: The area. It is uncertain whether or not the Legion participated in the construction of these buildings, but it is clear that they were once in the town of their home base. The Legion was moved a third and final time to station at Lambaesis in 128 AD. Once again this move was for strategic reasons as it was located in the Aures Mountains . This placement was the optimal location for control over
5324-406: The army was withdrawn from the proconsul and given to a Propraetorial legate who answered directly to the emperor. The Legio III Augusta first set up camp at Haidra before 14. The base at Haidra was not large enough to support an entire legion; this suggests that the legion was split up. Desert warfare required a small and highly mobile fighting force and it was not unheard of for the emperor to split
5445-557: The award of triumphal honours to no less than three Roman proconsuls for successes in the war (implying, in each case, the killing of at least 5000 insurgents), all events indicating more than just low-level guerrilla warfare. In Roman times, the indigenes of the Maghreb all belonged to peoples whom the Romans called, loosely east to west, the Libyae , the Afri (in what is now Tunisia , from which
5566-445: The behest of Tiberius, despite the fact that arguably Dolabella deserved the accolade more than any of his three predecessors, since unlike them, he had actually brought the war to an end by eliminating its instigator. Tacitus suggests that the reason was Sejanus' concern that his uncle's glory should not be diminished by comparison. Doubtless, Tiberius' embarrassment that the war had flared up again after he had declared it won also played
5687-428: The building projects. The most common construction projects soldiers were requested to work on were aqueducts, fortifications and amphitheaters. Typically they were more involved with "monumental projects" rather than "pure architecture." The legion was therefore no solely a military force but also a corps of engineers and surveyors, which required an advanced mix of skills. The first instance of military roads built by
5808-523: The client kingdom of Mauretania , which was annexed in AD 44 by the emperor Claudius . Apart from a passing mention by another (minor) author, the Annales by the Roman historian Tacitus (written c. AD 98) is the sole surviving ancient source on the Tacfarinas War. Tacitus gives a relatively detailed account, but its exclusivity makes it difficult to assess its accuracy and the war's significance. Tacitus
5929-415: The construction of the big duties like canals or aqueducts. The construction of aqueducts was not an easy job. It was very difficult to make sure all the pipes were level and that the pressure was correct at both ends. The surveyor was responsible for calculating all these measurements beforehand and then leaving the directions with the procurator. They would most likely be handed off to an officer known as
6050-457: The demand for troops during the 2nd century. As a result, the African Legions had to get manpower from eastern and local sources. When the Legion was not campaigning, it was engaged in vast public works projects across North Africa. There was very little serious fighting between the end of Tacfarinas ' rebellion in AD 24 and the assassination of Severus Alexander in 235. It is believed that
6171-532: The desert, anticipating attacks from Tacfarinas and his rebels. With this change in traditional tactics, Tacfarinas was defeated in a matter of years. Tacfarinas' army was ultimately defeated and Tacfarinas himself committed suicide, however his revolts and rebellious efforts should not go unnoticed. The Third Augustan Legion had to master the revolutionary techniques of Tacfarinas' band of robbers and ex-soldiers to succeed in conquering Tacfarinas. The guerrilla warfare strategies that Tacfarinas displays are one of
SECTION 50
#17330943276816292-558: The disparate Musulamii clans accepted him as their paramount leader. Thereafter, Tacfarinas rapidly gained the support of some of the Mauri , the western neighbours of the Musulamii, substantial numbers of whom were brought over by a leader called Mazippa, presumably a rebel against the Roman-installed king of Mauretania, Juba II. The Cinithii tribe who lived within Roman territory in southern Tunisia also joined him. While Tacfarinas trained
6413-429: The emperor Maximianus took personal control of the legion. The war lasted until 297 at which point the legion was victorious. In the early 4th century, Diocletian personally put down a rebellious governor and immediately afterward, transferred the Legio III Augusta from Lambaesis to another, unknown base within the region. Diocletian often worked with the legion during the period of military anarchy from 235 to 284. He
6534-494: The empire was crumbling due to native revolts in its other regions, forcing the Romans to run down their forces in Africa. He claimed that the remaining garrison could be overcome, and Numidia permanently freed, by a concerted effort of all Numidians. His propaganda was highly effective. He was joined by large numbers of Mauri warriors who turned their backs on their young pro-Roman king, Ptolemy , who had recently succeeded his father, Juba II. In addition, many Libyphoenician peasants,
6655-456: The end of Tacfarinas. The latter proved a resilient and determined adversary. For the ensuing seven years, he waged a devastating war on the Roman province. But neither side was able to score a decisive victory. Tacfarinas could not defeat the Romans in conventional military operations such as pitched battles and sieges. The Romans, for their part, could not eradicate such a mobile enemy, despite inflicting severe defeats on him, as Tacfarinas enjoyed
6776-435: The end of the war. He granted Blaesus the rare privilege of adopting the honorary title of imperator ("victorious general"), the last time this was accorded to a person outside the imperial house. When Blaesus returned to Rome at the end of his term in 23, he was also accorded triumphal honours, the third such award in the Tacfarinas War. The emperor now ordered the withdrawal of the 9th legion from Africa, confident that it
6897-476: The enemy by hit-and-run attacks, riding up and loosing volleys of javelins, then scattering and retreating faster than any opposing cavalry could pursue. They were superbly suited to scouting, harassment, ambush, and pursuit. Numidian foot soldiers were also predominantly light infantry, relying on speed and manoeuvrability. However, both Numidian foot and mounted warriors were vulnerable in close-order combat with Roman troops, who mainly wore metal armour. Nothing
7018-473: The enemy. After AD 6, no major operations are recorded, but the conflict mutated into a chronic low-level guerrilla resistance to Roman rule. It was in this context of conflict that Tacfarinas grew up. Still, the desert tribes' relationships with the Romans were not exclusively hostile. Many tribal nomads are known to have volunteered to serve in the Roman army , in both the regular auxilia and irregular native foederati (allied) units (although conscription
7139-521: The enemy. But his men retreated into the fort as their commander went down fighting. Roman soldiers were forbidden to retreat before an enemy unless ordered to do so by their commander. When Apronius was informed of the incident, he ordered the cohort to be decimated for cowardice. This ancient, extreme and rarely used form of military punishment required every tenth man in the unit (i.e. ca. 50 men in this case), chosen by lot, to be flogged to death in front of their comrades. The savage penalty "evidently had
7260-460: The enforced the presence of the Roman Empire against rebellions in North Africa for over three hundred years. However, they influenced the frontier in ways other than through expansion and urbanization. Militarily, they reformed the structure of the frontier through cultural changes and their mere presence throughout Africa. However, the legion was self-sufficient in protecting the African provinces for
7381-507: The exception of ruins of theaters and churches that are quite recognizable. A large military cemetery has been found, most of the tombs being from legionaries. During their time stationed at Ammaedara, the Legion discovered the town of Sbeitla. Many soldiers were recruited from this town. Then in 75 AD the Legion's camp was moved to Theveste (present day Tebessa ). However, many of the veterans stayed behind and were able to settle in town, several becoming farmers. The move to Theveste in 75 AD
SECTION 60
#17330943276817502-408: The expansion of the empire. These new connections led to the development of new towns and cities for civilians, camps for the military and even colonies for the veterans. All three were usually distinct from each other, but as time progressed, civilian towns, military camps and veterants colonies tended to merge. The Legion did not always build up an entire town. Often, civilians assisted in part of
7623-529: The final defeat and destruction of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War (146 BC). The fertility of its soil was proverbial among the Romans, far greater than it is today. The province was populous (c. 1.5 million inhabitants, roughly the same as contemporary Britain) and was, by 50 BC, the most important source of the City of Rome's grain supply. It was said that Africa fed the Roman populace for eight months of
7744-425: The following generations, crops were sold to Rome and the economic status of the cities inhabitants shifted; some became wealthy while others remained in comparative poverty. The wealthy were not only able to build better homes for themselves, but also contributed to the town of Timgad by donating money for public monuments. The presence of a library within the town signifies a high standard of learning and indicates
7865-578: The forum. Legio III Augusta Legio III Augusta ("Third Augustan Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army . Its origin may have been the Republican 3rd Legion which served the general Pompey during his civil war against Gaius Julius Caesar (49–45 BC). It supported the general Octavian (later emperor Augustus ) in his civil war against Mark Antony (31–30 BC). It was officially refounded in 30 BC, when Octavian achieved sole mastery of
7986-598: The great mutinies that broke out on Tiberius' accession in 14 AD. Blaesus owed his selection to his nephew, Sejanus , Tiberius' commander of the Praetorian Guard and trusted right-hand man. For the task, Tiberius gave Blaesus an additional legion (the IX Hispana , transferred from Pannonia on the Danube ) and its attached auxiliary regiments, doubling the total force in Africa to around 20,000. He also authorised Blaesus to offer
8107-468: The important facts and figures. Hartwell categorizes the three hundred years into sections that read easily and provide reliable information found from primary sources. http://hauburn.tripod.com/LegIII.html 2. This website provides a chronologically accurate timeline of the Legion. However, the author of this website does not appear to use any primary sources in their bibliography. https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/iii_augusta.html 3. The author provides
8228-468: The insurgency. Adding insult to injury, Tacfarinas was a commoner by birth, an affront to the status-conscious Romans. To Tiberius, a scion of the illustrious and patrician Claudia gens and ruler of a vast empire, it seemed intolerable that such a person should be seeking to deal with him on an equal basis like a foreign king.Tacitus relates with relish Tiberius' feelings of personal humiliation. This has led C.R. Whittaker to doubt that Tacfarinas' revolt
8349-402: The legion in a single fortress at Theveste , most likely in 75. In 115 or 120, the Legio III Augusta established their camp at Lambaesis where it remained for two centuries apart from the period 238–253. The legion was disbanded in 238 AD "because of its role in putting down an African-based revolt against the emperor Maximinus in favor of the provincial governor Gordianus." Capelianus was
8470-466: The long roads built in Leptis Magna helped open up the interior lands. Farmers seized this opportunity to plant more olive groves and therefore more oil was able to be exported to Rome. Once towns began to take in close proximity to military camps, marks of separation were needed. Typically, arches were used to mark on roads (or above them) the distinction between the civilian area and the entrance into
8591-579: The majority of the time. Most threats that required reinforcements arose in Mauretania, as this was where the Moors were the most dangerous. The Third Augustan had around 5000–6000 men with about 10,000–15,000 auxiliary men stationed close by. Almost half of these soldiers were stationed in Mauretania Tingitana ; the rest were positioned based on the military needs of that time. The Emperor Vespasian reunited
8712-445: The many ways the Third Augustan Legion had to alter its defense techniques in order to settle rebels throughout North Africa. The Musulamii gang under leadership and control of Tacfarinas was just one example of rebellions that the Legion had to settle, however no army of rebels proved as difficult, incessant, or resilient as the guerrilla army under Tacfarinas. The Third Augustan Legion was responsible for multiple building projects and
8833-501: The mathematics of construction. There is good evidence of this from emperors Augustus , Hadrian and Trajan , who all held engineers responsible for both construction and the military. There were not always many of these talented men in Northern Africa so it was important to train other men for the job. Thus over time the army became a place to learn the technical skills of engineering and surveying. These men would become involved in
8954-592: The middle of the third century. In the Peutinger Table , a map of the Roman empire from the late 4th century, the city is called Ad Dianam . Later, it came under the control of the Byzantine Empire . During the Byzantine period, the city underwent significant changes, and some of the Roman buildings were replaced by or reused for new constructions. A church was built on the forum, and the triumphal arch for Macrinus
9075-535: The name Africa is probably derived), the Numidians (eastern Algeria ), and Mauri (western Algeria and Morocco ), from which the term " Moors " was derived. North of the Atlas Mountains , the land was fertile and well-watered (there is evidence that rainfall was heavier than today and that the desert had not encroached as far north). The Berbers living inside the fertile zone were largely sedentary. In contrast, on
9196-499: The poorest stratum of African society, abandoned their fields and joined the insurgents. Tacfarinas also received "deniable" assistance from the king of the Garamantes, who, although officially allied with Rome, was making handsome profits as receiver of Tacfarinas' plunder and made little effort to prevent substantial numbers of his warriors from joining the insurgents. Given the emergency, Dolabella would have been justified in requesting
9317-542: The possibility that the Romans could discover his location, as he apparently failed to post a screen of sentries in the woods. In a repeat of Caesianus' raid four years earlier, Dolabella immediately despatched a flying strike-force of light-armed infantry and Numidian cavalry. They approached Tacfarinas' camp unobserved, under cover of the woods and the pre-dawn darkness. At the break of dawn, the Numidians, many of whom were still asleep and unarmed, and whose horses were grazing at
9438-401: The postponement of the 9th legion's imminent departure, but he did not dare to confront Tiberius with the grim reality of the situation in Africa. By the start of the AD 24 campaign-season, Tacfarinas felt strong enough to lay siege to the Roman strongpoint of Thubursicum ( Khamissa , Algeria or Teboursouk , Tunisia). Dolabella hurriedly assembled all his available troops and rushed to raise
9559-427: The principle of Hippodamus , the grid layout. The few remains in modern time include just a few pieces of architecture: the arch to Caracalla , a temple to Minerva and ruins of an amphitheater. On the arch "medallions of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna still survive on its faces" and the temple is "…one of the three or four best-preserved temples of the Roman world," says John Ferguson, archaeologist, who explored
9680-424: The proconsul's own son, Lucius Apronius Caesianus (presumably the 3rd legion's tribunus militum laticlavius - deputy commander). Tacfarinas was forced to flee into the Aurès mountains, abandoning most of his booty. For this result, Apronius (senior) was also awarded triumphal honours. At this point, Tacfarinas sent envoys to Rome to offer peace in return for land in the province for himself and his followers. It
9801-493: The procurator. They also had baths and an amphitheater outside the camp. After some time civilians began to settle close by, but their area was marked off by an arch. One veteran town from the Third Augustan Legion (and actually other legions in the Empire) was Thuburbo Majus . Here colonies were arranged granting veterans with, at the most, ¾ an acre of land. Although they were considered retired, these veterans were still involved in
9922-441: The protection of the provinces. Therefore, their colonies were spread out according to the Legion's strategic plan, and members actually guarded the areas. They sometimes built towers or ditches to be even more secure. Regardless of the militaristic constructions in the town, there were still beautiful public buildings such as a forum, mosaic floors, baths, churches and temples. Another town founded by Nerva especially for veterans
10043-512: The province more thoroughly, dividing his forces in three divisions covering the western, central and southern sectors respectively. He built a large number of new forts ( castella ), many very small, accommodating only a single century of troops (80 men). These were garrisoned year-round, as opposed to only in the campaigning season as previously. From these, small, highly mobile units of desert-trained troops would sally forth and keep Tacfarinas' bands under constant pressure. This system, similar to
10164-448: The province's grain production, which in turn threatened civil disorder in Rome. The Romans were for a long time unable to eradicate their enemy because of the Numidians' extraordinary mobility and their support from the many desert tribes. Tacfarinas was finally captured and killed in AD 24 by a combination of determined pursuit and a lucky break in intelligence. A direct consequence of the war
10285-450: The right measurement causing them to be completely off the intended line. It was up to Datus to fix the situation. The surveyors knew how to properly construct these aqueducts. If they stayed to monitor the actual construction, the operation ran successfully. This can be witnessed by the vast number of aqueducts that stood hundreds of years, some of them even thousands. For example, the water springs from Jebel Zaghouan still bring water all
10406-415: The road is indicated by the number of forts built along it. Some Emperors really encouraged building of roads. One in particular was Hadrian. He was deeply involved with the work of the Legio III Augusta and sought to make sure they were involved in building projects. the advantages of building roads was not restricted to military matters but provided economic incentives positive for the empire: For example,
10527-724: The roads in repair throughout the period of military anarchy. The Legion built and fortified Lambaesis and a military colony at Thamugadi , which was settled largely by veterans of the legion. As was the case throughout the empire, soldiers of the Third Augustan Legion were forbidden to marry. A mobile army might have been in state of forced celibacy but this was not possible or practical for soldiers in fixed frontier posts. Inscriptions from Lambaesis often mention women companions of soldiers, which indicate that although they did not marry during active duty, they did form relationships with local women. 1. John Hartwell, unlike many other creators of Legion websites, provides an accessible outline of
10648-447: The same number of auxiliaries, totaling approximately 10,000 men) were now greatly outnumbered by Tacfarinas' followers, Camillus decided to capitalise on the Romans' advantages in armour and training by offering Tacfarinas a decisive pitched battle. To this end, he led out into the field most of his force. Tacfarinas felt confident that with superior numbers, his newly modelled army, combining the best elements of Roman and Numidian warfare,
10769-427: The semi-nomadic Musulamii and Gaetuli. The result of Roman encroachment in this region was prolonged and bitter conflict between the nomads and Rome during Augustus' rule. His proconsuls in Africa fought a series of campaigns against the nomads: campaigns are recorded in 21 BC, 19 BC, c. 15 BC, c. AD 3, and AD 6, some large enough to gain triumphs for their generals, each of which implied the killing of at least 5,000 of
10890-643: The siege. Once again, the Numidians proved unable to withstand the Roman infantry charge and were routed on first assault and fled westwards into Mauretania. Dolabella now embarked on an all-out effort to hunt down the ever-elusive Tacfarinas, as it was evident that, unless its leader was eliminated, the insurgency would never end. The proconsul summoned assistance from Ptolemy, in whose kingdom Tacfarinas had taken refuge, and who supplied large numbers of those Mauri horse who had remained loyal to him. Thus reinforced, Dolabella divided his force into four divisions advancing in parallel to cover as much territory as possible, with
11011-464: The southern fringes existed tribes that led a semi-nomadic existence. They practised transhumance , living off herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. They spent the summers on the central plateau of Tunisia and the Aurès of northeast Algeria, where there was good grazing for the animals. In winter, they lived around the chotts (pronounced "shots"), a string of large salt lakes on the desert southern fringes of
11132-452: The stone markers laid down by the Roman surveyors, some of which survive to this day. They reach as far as the Chott el Jerid on the province's southern border. The region was largely turned to grain production and the Musulamii and other tribes most likely permanently excluded from their former grazing areas. Dolabella applied to the Senate for triumphal honours. But his motion was voted down at
11253-484: The town. They even paved a courtyard that was surrounded by porticos with rooms on three sides. Some of these rooms were just for the military guards and the Commander-in-chief. The fourth side consisted of a basilica. Probably one of the most "impressive" and "the most dominant memorials of Roman military might" was the praetorium built in Lambaesis. This praetorium served as the house of the commander — most likely
11374-414: The town. This made the area even more beauteous. Thamugadi, or modern Timgad , was a town founded for the sole purpose of resettling veterans. Original inhabitants were given a small plot of land inside the city to build on and a small plot of land outside the city to farm. The city grew rapidly, fueled by the security provided by the nearby army camp and the economic prosperity of the mid-2nd century. Over
11495-415: The traditional tactics used by the Roman army, the enemy was expected to attack in formation, as the Roman legions did. With the rebellion of Tacfarinas, Roman commanders had to change their mode of attack. The general of the Third Augustan Legion split up the army into small units of men that took orders from a commanding officer. These units of men were constantly battle ready, mobile, and trained to fight in
11616-456: The tribes. Originally they built their camp to be about 220 square yards following the same grid plan as they did at Theveste. As historian E. Lennox Manton describes the construction, he says it was built "to a rectangular plan with military precision." By the middle of the 2nd century, the town grew perhaps to four times its original size. Throughout their stay at Lambaesis, columns, pillars with rounded niches and statues were all built around
11737-402: The tunnel would need to be excavated. This he gave to the procurator. He even gave the information to the contractor to be sure everything was done correctly. As Datus' skills were so widely needed, he had to leave the Legion for four years expecting the construction would go along smoothly without him. The construction did not go according to plan. The legionaries were unable to dig the tunnels at
11858-463: The ultimate resort of vanishing into the desert or the mountains, beyond the Romans' reach. In the meantime, Tacfarinas' raiding inflicted massive economic damage on the province. It is likely that the sky-high grain prices recorded at Rome during this period were caused by Tacfarinas' insurgency. These in turn threatened the emperor with civil disorder in the City of Rome itself: Tacitus records riots in protest at grain prices in AD 19. In 18, Camillus
11979-453: The way to Tunis. Historian E. Lennox Manton says, "A large new pipeline takes it through those same conduits in the hills which were originally excavated by the legion." Although the pipping system was changed, the original layout is still used. Augustus officially stationed his Third Legion in 30 BC at Ammaedara which was located in the Aures Mountains . There they protected the North African provinces for 105 years. Not much remains today, at
12100-420: The west to Cyrenaica in the east. Augustus' strategic conception was that Juba's native warriors would provide the Roman province's first line of defence against incursions by the nomadic desert tribes. But Juba proved unequal to the task, not least because the fiercely independent desert tribes refused to recognise his overlordship, despising him as a tool of Roman imperialism. The most fertile part of Numidia
12221-702: The year, while Egypt provided the remaining four months' supply. The province was a land of vast estates ( latifundia ) owned by absentee landlords. Pliny the Elder states that in the time of the emperor Nero (ruled 54–68), half of all arable land in the province was owned by just six Roman senators . Until 45 BC, the rest of northwest Africa was organised as two Berber Roman satellite-states, Numidia (Tripolitania, western Tunisia/eastern Algeria) and Mauretania (central/western Algeria and Morocco). In 45 BC, Roman dictator perpetuus Julius Caesar defeated and killed king Juba I , and annexed his kingdom of Numidia to
12342-530: Was Cuicul (now Djémila) , "the beautiful" in the 1st century. The Legion also helped protect this town just as in Thuburbo Majus . The town is located on a hill and the lower part was the original foundation. It was later extended up the hill as more and more commercial activity occurred. Originally, at the end of the 1st century, there was a forum built. This later became known as the North Forum because another
12463-427: Was Ptolemy's direct ancestor in 5 generations. On his mother's side, he was the grandson of Mark Antony (the last Roman political rival to Augustus) and Cleopatra , the last pharaoh of an independent Egypt. It must have worried the Roman leadership that if Ptolemy ever turned against Rome, his pedigree, wealth and power could endanger the whole Roman position in north Africa. Indeed, Ptolemy had by this time become
12584-543: Was a deserter from the Roman army who led his own Musulamii tribe and a loose and changing coalition of other Berber tribes in a war against the Romans in North Africa during the rule of the emperor Tiberius (AD 14–37). Though Tacfarinas' personal motivation is unknown, it is likely that the Roman occupation under Augustus of the traditional grazing grounds of the Musulamii was the determining factor. Nevertheless, Tacfarinas' large-scale raids caused severe disruption of
12705-445: Was built in the 3rd century. The second forum included a beautiful temple to Septimius Severus. The staircase in the temple was wonderful, "…the most impressive flight of steps ever to be built to such an edifice in North Africa." There was a paved road that connected the two forums and upon walking, temples, buildings, homes and even the old market area could be seen. The wealthier veterans were able to construct baths and mosaics around
12826-468: Was built to replace the Lambaesis Gate—a monument built on the street that led to Lambeasis. The town itself was most likely a very clean place. There are many baths throughout, probably close to 12–14. Originally, the Legion was composed mainly of Italian soldiers, but by the 3rd century AD the legion was almost entirely of Punic and Libyan origin. Italy and Gaul were hard-pressed to cope with
12947-489: Was equal to the challenge. His men joined battle with the Romans and were utterly routed. Tacitus gives no details on how this was accomplished, but later events suggest that the Numidian line was probably broken by the legionary infantry charge. Tacfarinas fled into the desert with the shattered remnants of his army and Camillus was awarded triumphal honours . But the Romans were much mistaken if they believed this battle to be
13068-508: Was erected for the emperor Macrinus in 217. A number of other inscriptions have also been discovered, and in the western part of the city several mausolea have been found. Three buildings from the Byzantine period have been identified. A small fort (20.2 x 16. m) that had been attached to the arch of Macrinus, and a larger fort (61 x 53 m) about 100 m east of the original forum. Finally a Christian church (33 x 17.1m), that had been built on top of
13189-402: Was ever a serious threat to Roman rule in Africa, suggesting that Tacitus may have exaggerated the war's importance for dramatic effect. In favour of this view is the inability of Tacfarinas' forces to take Roman fortified positions or to stand up to Roman armies in pitched battle; against it are Tacfarinas' establishment of a Roman-style force, the despatch of an extra legion to the war zone, and
13310-402: Was fascinated by the psychology of emperor Tiberius , whom he regarded as the quintessential flawed tyrant and the way that the long, drawn-out insurgency in Africa with its many crises exposed his weaknesses; as with, for example, the emperor's explosion of fury when he received envoys from Tacfarinas demanding concessions in return for peace. This was not only due to Tiberius' exasperation with
13431-466: Was integrated into a small fort. In the second half of the 7th century, the city was captured by the expanding Arab empire . Archeological excavations at the site have yielded a large paved rectangular forum and an aqueduct . In the southeastern area, there are also the remains of a temple that may have been dedicated to the goddess Diana . Two arches have been found, the larger one of which features three openings. An inscription on it indicates that it
13552-441: Was no longer needed. But Tacitus suggests that Blaesus and Tiberius were being over-optimistic about the situation, given that Tacfarinas himself was still at large with a substantial following. In any event, the Romans were soon disabused of their complacency. The new proconsul, Publius Cornelius Dolabella , who arrived in 24, was faced by as grave a threat from the desert as had any of his predecessors. Tacfarinas' great strength
13673-422: Was not very far—just a bit west of Ammaedara. They relocated for purely strategic reasons. It was believed that if they moved they would be closer to the enemy—the local tribes who had been uprising often. The Legion was dedicated to its protection so they wanted to make sure they were in the best place possible to do so. They settled the area and built their own town. This town was physically constructed according to
13794-402: Was particularly prolific with his building projects, many of which were in Africa. Most of the projects were aimed at either replacing earlier works destroyed during the period of military anarchy or repairing public improvements, which had been allowed to fall into decay. The Legion was the main labor resource for these projects. The legion was still mentioned as late as the early 5th century but
13915-448: Was planned. Dio suggests that Ptolemy was executed because he had become too wealthy. Ptolemy had started issuing gold coins, which was the traditional prerogative of an independent head of state. Another likely factor was Ptolemy's distinguished pedigree, which gave him a dangerously broad appeal in north Africa. On his father's side, Ptolemy was the scion of the ancient Numidian dynasty founded by king Massinissa (ruled 201–148 BC), who
14036-405: Was replaced by Lucius Apronius as proconsul of Africa. Tacfarinas launched a series of lightning raids on Roman territory, destroying the villages he had ransacked and disappearing into the desert before Roman forces could intervene. Emboldened by success, Tacfarinas attempted a conventional siege operation. His men surrounded a strategic Roman fort on the river Pagyda (location uncertain) held by
14157-470: Was retained in the Roman province. This part included the central Tunisian plateau, land ideal for the cultivation of wheat, for which the Romans had an ever-increasing demand. The region, some 27,000 km in area, offered the prospect of doubling the province's grain production. At some point in the first half of Augustus' rule, it appears that the single legion deployed in the province (the III Augusta )
14278-423: Was stationed at Theveste (modern Tébessa, Algeria), strategically placed on the western edge of the plateau so as to protect it from incursions from the Aurès mountains. (Later, during Tacfarinas' insurgency, the 3rd legion's base was moved to Ammaedara – modern Haïdra, Tunisia – right in the centre of the plateau). The road northeast to the provincial capital at Carthage bisected the plateau. In AD 14, Legio III
14399-406: Was still common at this time, and was another cause of discontent). The army provided the prospect of a well-paid career that gave scope for the tribesmen's martial nature, which was highly regarded by the Romans. Numidian cavalry ( equites Numidarum or Maurorum ), which had played a prominent role in Roman armies since the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), were regarded as the best light cavalry in
14520-405: Was that there was an inexhaustible supply of would-be raiders among the desert tribes. So even if he lost many of his followers in encounters with the Romans, which he frequently did, he could rapidly reconstitute his raiding-bands. Moreover, Tacfarinas now started posing as the leader of a war of national liberation. He used the news of the withdrawal of half the Roman garrison to spread rumours that
14641-401: Was the registration of the entire Tunisian plateau for land taxation and its conversion to mainly wheat cultivation. The Musulamii and other nomadic tribes were likely permanently excluded from what had been their summer grazing grounds and subsequently forced to lead a more impoverished existence in the Aurès mountains and the arid zone. The conflict also probably sealed the long-term fate of
#680319