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89-520: The Prius α was offered in the Japanese market with both nickel–metal hydride battery and lithium-ion battery . The Prius v in the U.S. was offered only with a nickel–metal hydride battery. As of April 2016, global sales totaled about 634,000 units, led by Japan with 428,400 units sold, representing 67.6% of global sales. The Prius v design resembles compact based minivans prevalent in Europe and has

178-705: A USB port that allows playing of music and video from portable audio devices, and includes full iPod integration. U.S. sales of the Prius v were discontinued at the end of the 2017 model year as sales had fallen considerably since the 2016 launch of the Toyota RAV4 Hybrid . The 2012 Prius v was selected among the five finalists for the 2012 Green Car of the Year to be awarded by the Green Car Journal in November 2011 at

267-577: A gas mask . Diesel exhaust is the exhaust gas produced by a diesel engine , plus any contained particulates . Its composition may vary with the fuel type, rate of consumption or speed of engine operation (e.g., idling or at speed or under load), and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle, farm vehicle, locomotive, marine vessel, or stationary generator or other application. Diesel exhaust causes lung cancer and other diseases such as asthma , and many premature deaths. Methods exist to reduce nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and particulate matter (PM) in

356-510: A tailpipe filter installed, while the United States has mandated it for diesel only. In 2022, British testing specialist Emissions Analytics estimated that the 300 million or so gasoline vehicles in the US over the subsequent decade would emit around 1.6 septillion harmful particles. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas . Motor vehicle CO 2 emissions are part of the anthropogenic contribution to

445-425: A "Deranged Spaceship". The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rated the Prius v fuel economy at 44 miles per US gallon (5.3 L/100 km; 53 mpg ‑imp ) for city driving and 40 miles per US gallon (5.9 L/100 km; 48 mpg ‑imp ) for highway, and a combined rating of 42 miles per US gallon (5.6 L/100 km; 50 mpg ‑imp ). According to Toyota,

534-420: A catalytic converter up to 100,000 ppm (10%) for a richly tuned carburetor engine, such as typically found on small generators and garden equipment. Exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine whose fuel includes nitromethane will contain nitric acid vapour, which is corrosive, and when inhaled causes a muscular reaction making it impossible to breathe. People who are likely to be exposed to it should wear

623-419: A drag coefficient of  C d =0.29 with a shape that evolved from the Prius. The exterior styling is rounded with an extended roofline that allows the vehicle to retain the triangular silhouette symbolic of Prius. Other differences are the trapezoidal-shaped front with sharp-edged headlamps and wind-slipping aero corners for improved aerodynamics, as well as an enlarged under grille. The rear styling has

712-405: A freshly charged AA NiMH cell in good condition is about 1.4 volts. Complete discharge of multi-cell packs can cause reverse polarity in one or more cells, which can permanently damage them. This situation can occur in the common arrangement of four AA cells in series, where one cell completely discharges before the others due to small differences in capacity among the cells. When this happens,

801-615: A fuel consumption of 4.4 L/100 km (64 mpg ‑imp ; 53 mpg ‑US ) and CO 2 emissions of 101   g/km. Toyota launched the second member of the Prius family with three regional versions of the vehicle: the Prius v in the North American market, the Prius α in Japan, and the Prius+ in Europe. The Alpha is the basis for the five-seat launched in North America, and

890-453: A fully charged state. Some chargers do this after the charge cycle, to offset natural self-discharge. A similar approach is suggested by Energizer, which indicates that self-catalysis can recombine gas formed at the electrodes for charge rates up to C/10. This leads to cell heating. The company recommends C /30 or C /40 for indefinite applications where long life is important. This is the approach taken in emergency lighting applications, where

979-470: A higher specific energy than nickel–metal hydride batteries, but they were originally significantly more expensive. The cost of lithium batteries fell drastically during the 2010s and many small consumer devices now have non-consumer-replaceable lithium batteries as a result. Lithium batteries produce a higher voltage (3.2–3.7 V nominal), and are thus not a drop-in replacement for AA (alkaline or NiMh) batteries without circuitry to reduce voltage. Although

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1068-426: A hybrid more spacious than the Prius. A total of 8,399 Prius v's were sold during 2011, climbed to 40,669 units in 2012, and fell to 34,989 in 2013, and to 30,762 in 2014. Sales continued to decline in 2015 to 28,290 units, down 8% from 2014. As of April 2016, cumulative sales totaled 148,079 units. The Prius v in the U.S. was offered in three configurations: the base Prius v Two, the mid-range Prius v Three, and

1157-459: A panoramic sunroof made of lightweight resin, 40% lighter than a glass roof of the same size. Entune premiered on the 2012 Toyota Prius v . The Prius v powertrain uses the same 1.8 liter Atkinson cycle gasoline inline-four engine used in the conventional Prius, a 60 kW traction motor, and shares the Prius's Hybrid Synergy Drive system and the same 201 volt nickel-metal hydride battery pack. Toyota introduced some refinements unique to

1246-522: A popular improvement of the NiMH battery and founded Ovonic Battery Company in 1982. General Motors purchased Ovonics' patent in 1994. By the late 1990s, NiMH batteries were being used successfully in many fully electric vehicles, such as the General Motors EV1 and Dodge Caravan EPIC minivan. This generation of electric cars, although successful, was abruptly pulled off the market. In October 2000,

1335-536: A protection layer), alkaline treatment of negative electrode (causing reduction of leach-out of Mn and Al), addition of LiOH and NaOH into electrolyte (causing reduction in electrolyte corrosion capabilities), and addition of Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 into electrolyte (causing reduction in MH alloy corrosion). Most of these improvements have no or negligible effect on cost; some increase cost modestly. NiMH cells are often used in digital cameras and other high-drain devices, where over

1424-634: A rate of around 1× C (full discharge in 1 hour), it does not differ significantly from the nominal capacity. NiMH batteries nominally operate at 1.2 V per cell, somewhat lower than conventional 1.5 V cells, but can operate many devices designed for that voltage . NiMH batteries were frequently used in prior-generation electric and hybrid-electric vehicles; as of 2020 they have been superseded almost entirely by lithium-ion batteries in all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, but they remain in use in some hybrid vehicles (2020 Toyota Highlander, for example). Prior all-electric plug-in vehicles included

1513-409: A reversing camera. However the i-Tech included features such as leather, LED headlamps, Radar Dynamic Cruise Control, Pre-Collision Safety System, Panoramic roof and Satellite navigation. According to ADR81/02 the Prius v returns fuel economy of 4.4 L/100 km (64 mpg ‑imp ; 53 mpg ‑US ) and CO 2 emissions of 101   g/km. Sales in 2014 totaled 722 units, ahead of

1602-504: A single lithium cell will typically provide ideal power to replace 3 NiMH cells, the form factor means that the device still needs modification. NiMH batteries can easily be made smaller and lighter than lead-acid batteries and have completely replaced them in small devices. However, lead-acid batteries can deliver huge current at low cost, making lead-acid batteries more suitable for starter motors in combustion vehicles. As of 2005 , nickel–metal hydride batteries constituted three percent of

1691-571: A space-saving lithium-ion drive battery in the center console. The five-seat model uses a NiMH battery pack. Deliveries of the Alpha were delayed due to the effects of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami on production. Toyota announced it had received 25,000 orders for the Prius Alpha hybrid wagon and minivan models in Japan before the start of sales. Since its introduction, a total of 111,500 Prius α have been sold in Japan through April 2012, representing 80.8% of

1780-425: A specially designed roof spoiler that improves air flow. The interior cargo space is more than 50% larger than the 2010 Toyota Prius , 5 inches (130 mm) longer and 1 inch (25 mm) wider, providing 34.3 cubic feet (970 L) of cargo space behind the rear seats; it also offers 38 inches (970 mm) of rear leg room, and more head height. The Toyota Prius v includes many of the same standard features of

1869-465: A subsidiary of Daimler AG . The batteries' specific energy reached 50 W·h/kg (180 kJ/kg), specific power up to 1000 W/kg and a life of 500 charge cycles (at 100% depth of discharge ). Patent applications were filed in European countries (priority: Switzerland), the United States, and Japan. The patents transferred to Daimler-Benz. Interest grew in the 1970s with the commercialisation of

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1958-626: A substitute for similarly shaped non-rechargeable alkaline batteries , as they feature a slightly lower but generally compatible cell voltage and are less prone to leaking . Work on NiMH batteries began at the Battelle -Geneva Research Center following the technology's invention in 1967. It was based on sintered Ti 2 Ni+TiNi+x alloys and NiOOH electrodes. Development was sponsored over nearly two decades by Daimler-Benz and by Volkswagen AG within Deutsche Automobilgesellschaft, now

2047-530: A successful battery based on this approach (using a mixture of La 0.8 Nd 0.2 Ni 2.5 Co 2.4 Si 0.1 ), which kept 84% of its charge capacity after 4000 charge-discharge cycles. More economically viable alloys using mischmetal instead of lanthanum were soon developed. Modern NiMH cells were based on this design. The first consumer-grade NiMH cells became commercially available in 1989. In 1998, Stanford Ovshinsky at Ovonic Battery Co. , which had been working on MH-NiOOH batteries since mid-1980, improved

2136-454: A sulfonated polyolefin separator, an improvement over the hydrophilic polyolefin based on ethylene vinyl alcohol . Low-self-discharge cells have somewhat lower capacity than otherwise equivalent NiMH cells because of the larger volume of the separator. The highest-capacity low-self-discharge AA cells have 2500 mAh capacity, compared to 2700 mAh for high-capacity AA NiMH cells. Common methods to improve self-discharge include: use of

2225-797: A sulfonated separator (causing removal of N-containing compounds), use of an acrylic acid grafted PP separator (causing reduction in Al- and Mn-debris formation in separator), removal of Co and Mn in A 2 B 7 MH alloy, (causing reduction in debris formation in separator), increase of the amount of electrolyte (causing reduction in the hydrogen diffusion in electrolyte), removal of Cu-containing components (causing reduction in micro-short), PTFE coating on positive electrode (causing suppression of reaction between NiOOH and H 2 ), CMC solution dipping (causing suppression of oxygen evolution), micro-encapsulation of Cu on MH alloy (causing decrease in H 2 released from MH alloy), Ni–B alloy coating on MH alloy (causing formation of

2314-467: A timer. Most manufacturers claim that overcharging is safe at very low currents, below 0.1  C ( C /10) (where C is the current equivalent to the capacity of the battery divided by one hour). The Panasonic NiMH charging manual warns that overcharging for long enough can damage a battery and suggests limiting the total charging time to 10–20 hours. Duracell further suggests that a trickle charge at C /300 can be used for batteries that must be kept in

2403-534: A twin moonroof and leather seats. It was named as the Prius+ and was sold by local distributor Borneo Motors as a mid-sized MPV from 2018. It replaced the Toyota Wish , which was discontinued in Japan and Singapore in 2017. The sales tagline was "More Than You Wished For." Only one variant was available. Toyota began sales of the Prius v in the U.S. in October 2011 with a nickel-metal hydride battery pack similar to

2492-467: Is 5–20% on the first day and stabilizes around 0.5–4% per day at room temperature . But at 45 °C (113 °F) it is approximately three times as high. The low–self-discharge nickel–metal hydride battery ( LSD NiMH ) has a significantly lower rate of self-discharge. The innovation was introduced in 2005 by Sanyo , branded Eneloop . By using improvements to electrode separator, positive electrode, and other components, manufacturers claim

2581-473: Is AB 5 , where A is a rare-earth mixture of lanthanum , cerium , neodymium , praseodymium , and B is nickel , cobalt , manganese , or aluminium . Some cells use higher-capacity negative electrode materials based on AB 2 compounds, where A is titanium or vanadium , and B is zirconium or nickel, modified with chromium , cobalt, iron , or manganese . NiMH cells have an alkaline electrolyte , usually potassium hydroxide . The positive electrode

2670-539: Is colorless, odorless and tasteless, but highly toxic. It combines with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin , which blocks the transport of oxygen. At concentrations above 1000ppm it is considered immediately dangerous and is the most immediate health hazard from running engines in a poorly ventilated space. In 2011, 52% of carbon monoxide emissions were created by mobile vehicles in the U.S. Chronic (long-term) exposure to benzene ( C 6 H 6 ) damages bone marrow . It can also cause excessive bleeding and depress

2759-591: Is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas , gasoline (petrol) , diesel fuel , fuel oil , biodiesel blends, or coal . According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe , flue gas stack , or propelling nozzle . It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume . It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions (and from stationary internal combustion engines ), which can also include crankcase blow-by and evaporation of unused gasoline. Air pollution from burning fossil fuels

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2848-471: Is employed, when the cells vary in temperature. This is because capacity significantly declines as the cells are cooled. This results in a lower voltage under load of the colder cells. Historically, NiMH cells have had a somewhat higher self-discharge rate (equivalent to internal leakage) than NiCd cells. The self-discharge rate varies greatly with temperature, where lower storage temperature leads to slower discharge and longer battery life. The self-discharge

2937-707: Is estimated to kill over 5 million people each year. A 2013 study by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) indicates that 53,000 early deaths occur per year in the United States alone because of vehicle emissions. According to another study from the same university, traffic fumes alone cause the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United Kingdom. Researchers from the University of California, Los Angeles School of Public Health say preliminary results of their statistical study of children listed in

3026-552: Is estimated to kill over 5 million people each year. Motor vehicle emissions are a common source of air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities. The largest part of most combustion gas is nitrogen (N 2 ), water vapor (H 2 O) (except with pure-carbon fuels), and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) (except for fuels without carbon); these are not toxic or noxious (although water vapor and carbon dioxide are greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change ). A relatively small part of combustion gas

3115-435: Is important to the functioning of the catalytic converter of an internal combustion engine . It may be measured by an exhaust gas temperature gauge . EGT is also a measure of engine health in gas-turbine engines (see below). During the first two minutes after starting the engine of a car that has not been operated for several hours, the amount of emissions can be very high. This occurs for two main reasons: Comparable with

3204-505: Is named Prius+ and was launched in June 2012. The European is offered with a lithium-ion battery , with three rows of seats with accommodations for seven passengers. Cumulative sales in the region totaled 38,200 units through April 2016. Three trims are offered in the country, Active, Dynamic and Lounge. The Prius+ was released in June 2012. Deliveries of the Prius+ began in July 2012. The hybrid MPV

3293-400: Is nickel hydroxide, and the negative electrode is hydrogen in the form of an interstitial metal hydride. Hydrophilic polyolefin nonwovens are used for separation. When fast-charging, it is advisable to charge the NiMH cells with a smart battery charger to avoid overcharging , which can damage cells. The simplest of the safe charging methods is with a fixed low current, with or without

3382-426: Is offered in two trims: the base T4 that delivers 68.9 mpg ‑imp (4.10 L/100 km; 57.4 mpg ‑US ) on a combined cycle and carbon dioxide emissions of 96   g/km, and the T Spirit with a fuel economy of 64.2 mpg ‑imp (4.40 L/100 km; 53.5 mpg ‑US ) and carbon dioxide emissions of 101   g/km. Due to its emissions being lower than 100   g/km,

3471-534: Is that emitted from ovens, furnaces and boilers. In steam engine terminology the exhaust is steam that is now so low in pressure that it can no longer do useful work. Mono- nitrogen oxides NO and NO 2 ( NOx ) (whether produced this way or naturally by lightning ) react with ammonia , moisture, and other compounds to form nitric acid vapor and related particles. Small particles can penetrate deeply into sensitive lung tissue and damage it, causing premature death in extreme cases. Inhalation of NO species increases

3560-400: Is to monitor the change of voltage with time. When the battery is fully charged, the voltage across its terminals drops slightly. The charger can detect this and stop charging. This method is often used with nickel–cadmium cells, which display a large voltage drop at full charge. However, the voltage drop is much less pronounced for NiMH and can be non-existent at low charge rates, which can make

3649-404: Is undesirable, noxious, or toxic substances, such as carbon monoxide (CO) from incomplete combustion, hydrocarbons (properly indicated as C x H y , but typically shown simply as "HC" on emissions-test slips) from unburnt fuel, nitrogen oxides (NO x ) from excessive combustion temperatures, and particulate matter (mostly soot ) from incomplete combustion. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)

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3738-440: Is useful to growing plants. When oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, ground level ozone is formed, a primary ingredient in smog . A 2005 U.S. EPA report gives road vehicles as the second largest source of VOCs in the U.S. at 26% and 19% are from non road equipment which is mostly gasoline and diesel stations. 27% of VOC emissions are from solvents which are used in

3827-521: The Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 . The warning sound is generated by externally mounted speakers and it activates automatically only at speeds below about 15 mph (24 km/h). The pitch varies with the vehicle's speed to give pedestrians a sense of whether the approaching Prius is accelerating or decelerating. Reception for this feature of the car had been mixed, with the website Green Car Reports thinking it sounded like

3916-546: The European emission standards EURO III as it was applied in October 2000 In 2000, the United States Environmental Protection Agency began to implement more stringent emissions standards for light duty vehicles. The requirements were phased in beginning with 2004 vehicles and all new cars and light trucks were required to meet the updated standards by the end of 2007. In spark-ignition engines

4005-519: The General Motors EV1 , first-generation Toyota RAV4 EV , Honda EV Plus , Ford Ranger EV and Vectrix scooter. Every first generation hybrid vehicle used NIMH batteries, most notably the Toyota Prius and Honda Insight , as well as later models including the Ford Escape Hybrid , Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid and Honda Civic Hybrid also use them. Stanford R. Ovshinsky invented and patented

4094-670: The Los Angeles Auto Show . The Prius Alpha was also shortlisted for 2012 Car of The Year Japan. Shared with the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid , the Prius v was awarded Green Car Report's Best Car to Buy 2012. The Prius V was discontinued in the United States after the 2017 model year, with the XA40 RAV4 Hybrid indirectly taking its place. Japanese production was discontinued in March 2021. In Australia and New Zealand, it

4183-410: The immune system , increasing the chance of infection . Benzene causes leukemia and is associated with other blood cancers and pre-cancers of the blood. The health effects of inhaling airborne particulate matter have been widely studied in humans and animals and include asthma , lung cancer , cardiovascular issues, premature death . Because of the size of the particles, they can penetrate

4272-414: The memory effect ) from repeated partial discharge can occur, but is reversible with a few full discharge/charge cycles. A fully charged cell supplies an average 1.25 V/cell during discharge, declining to about 1.0–1.1 V/cell (further discharge may cause permanent damage in the case of multi-cell packs, due to polarity reversal of the weakest cell). Under a light load (0.5 amperes), the starting voltage of

4361-467: The nickel–hydrogen battery for satellite applications. Hydride technology promised an alternative, less bulky way to store the hydrogen. Research carried out by Philips Laboratories and France's CNRS developed new high-energy hybrid alloys incorporating rare-earth metals for the negative electrode. However, these suffered from alloy instability in alkaline electrolyte and consequently insufficient cycle life. In 1987, Willems and Buschow demonstrated

4450-479: The 2010 model year Prius, and with two rows of seats to accommodate five passengers. The European and Japanese versions are offered with a lithium-ion battery , with three rows of seats with accommodations for seven passengers. Toyota's sales target is about 15 to 20% of conventional Prius sales in the United States, which represents around 30,000 units a year. With the Prius v, Toyota wanted to expand its customer base to include young families with children looking for

4539-458: The 2010 Prius, with four driving modes: Normal, Power, Eco and EV; smart key with push button start, an electronic shift lever, Hill Start Assist Control (HAC), and a back-up camera. Available options include energy-efficient LED headlamps, dynamic radar cruise control with a Pre-Collision System (PCS), and advanced parking guidance system. The Prius v has several technical advancements including Toyota's new Toyota Entune Multimedia System and

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4628-527: The Prius v produces 66% less smog-forming emissions than the average new vehicle. Under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) test, the base model has a fuel consumption of 4.1 L/100 km (69 mpg ‑imp ; 57 mpg ‑US ) in combined cycle and 3.8 L/100 km (74 mpg ‑imp ; 62 mpg ‑US ) in city driving. Its CO 2 emissions are estimated at 96   g/km. The top-of-the-line model has

4717-405: The Prius v powertrain . These refinements include a new "Pitch and Bounce" motor control that the Prius v automatically employs on undulating roads and the refined control was designed to improve ride comfort and control. Because the Prius v is a larger vehicle with greater load capacity, suspension components were redesigned to improve handling and ride quality. "Pitch and Bounce" control works with

4806-578: The Prius α would be discontinued from March 2021. The Prius v was launched in Australia in May 2012. The 7-seat version with lithium-ion battery was the only model and was available two specifications; base and i-Tech. Standard features included a 6.1-inch display-screen audio system, automatic air-conditioning, 16-inch alloy wheels, energy monitor, head-up display, keyless entry and ignition, daytime-sensing headlamps, fog lamps, cruise control, daytime running lamps, and

4895-514: The Prius α/v model line's global sales. Since May 2011 a total of 289,000 Prius α have been sold through December 2013. On April 8, 2013, Daihatsu started selling its OEM version of the Prius α for the Japanese market under the Daihatsu Mebius ( Japanese : ダイハツ・メビウス , Hepburn : Daihatsu Mebiusu ) name. The Mebius was discontinued in February 2021. On December 1, 2020, Toyota announced that

4984-697: The T4 version is exempted from road tax. Cars appropriately enrolled in an incentive scheme, on or before 27 June 2013, will also enjoy exemption from the London congestion charge until 24 June 2016, provided the registered keeper of the vehicle remains unchanged. The lithium-ion battery , seven seater version of Prius v was launched in Hong Kong SAR in April 2012. Two variants are available, in Luxury and Super luxury trims. The latter adds

5073-517: The Ti–Ni alloy structure and composition and patented its innovations. In 2008, more than two million hybrid cars worldwide were manufactured with NiMH batteries. In the European Union due to its Battery Directive , nickel–metal hydride batteries replaced Ni–Cd batteries for portable consumer use. About 22% of portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan in 2010 were NiMH. In Switzerland in 2009,

5162-431: The approach unreliable. Another option is to monitor the change of voltage with respect to time and stop when this becomes zero, but this risks premature cutoffs. With this method, a much higher charging rate can be used than with a trickle charge, up to 1  C . At this charge rate, Panasonic recommends to terminate charging when the voltage drops 5–10 mV per cell from the peak voltage. Since this method measures

5251-452: The battery market. NiMH batteries have replaced NiCd for many roles, notably small rechargeable batteries. NiMH batteries are commonly available in AA ( penlight -size) batteries. These have nominal charge capacities ( C ) of 1.1–2.8 Ah at 1.2 V, measured at the rate that discharges the cell in 5 hours. Useful discharge capacity is a decreasing function of the discharge rate, but up to

5340-640: The better), and on its physical size and charge capacity. Separators keep the two electrodes apart to slow electrical discharge while allowing the transport of ionic charge carriers that close the circuit during the passage of current . High-quality separators are critical for battery performance. The self-discharge rate depends upon separator thickness; thicker separators reduce self-discharge, but also reduce capacity as they leave less space for active components, and thin separators lead to higher self-discharge. Some batteries may have overcome this tradeoff by using more precisely manufactured thin separators, and

5429-411: The cell reaches full charge, most of the charging energy is converted to heat. This increases the rate of change of battery temperature, which can be detected by a sensor such as a thermistor . Both Panasonic and Duracell suggest a maximal rate of temperature increase of 1 °C per minute. Using a temperature sensor allows an absolute temperature cutoff, which Duracell suggests at 60 °C. With both

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5518-422: The cells retain 70–85% of their capacity when stored for one year at 20 °C (68 °F), compared to about half for normal NiMH batteries. They are otherwise similar to standard NiMH batteries, and can be charged in standard NiMH chargers. These cells are marketed as "hybrid", "ready-to-use" or "pre-charged" rechargeables. Retention of charge depends in large part on the battery's leakage resistance (the higher

5607-610: The charging process. A method for very rapid charging called in-cell charge control involves an internal pressure switch in the cell, which disconnects the charging current in the event of overpressure. One inherent risk with NiMH chemistry is that overcharging causes hydrogen gas to form, potentially rupturing the cell. Therefore, cells have a vent to release the gas in the event of serious overcharging. NiMH batteries are made of environmentally friendly materials. The batteries contain only mildly toxic substances and are recyclable. Voltage depression (often mistakenly attributed to

5696-452: The deepest part of the lungs. A 2011 UK study estimates 90 deaths per year due to passenger vehicle PM. In a 2006 publication, the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) state that in 2002 about 1 per-cent of all PM 10 and 2 per-cent of all PM 2.5 emissions came from the exhaust of on-road motor vehicles (mostly from diesel engines ). In Chinese, European, and Indian markets, both diesel and gasoline vehicles are required to have

5785-499: The design remains essentially the same as in older NiCd units, except for an increase in the trickle-charging resistor value. Panasonic's handbook recommends that NiMH batteries on standby be charged by a lower duty cycle approach, where a pulse of a higher current is used whenever the battery's voltage drops below 1.3 V. This can extend battery life and use less energy. To prevent cell damage, fast chargers must terminate their charge cycle before overcharging occurs. One method

5874-757: The duration of single-charge use they outperform primary (such as alkaline) batteries. NiMH cells are advantageous for high-current-drain applications compared to alkaline batteries, largely due to their lower internal resistance. Typical alkaline AA-size batteries, which offer approximately 2.6 Ah capacity at low current demand (25 mA), provide only 1.3 Ah capacity with a 500 mA load. Digital cameras with LCDs and flashlights can draw over 1 A, quickly depleting them. NiMH cells can deliver these current levels without similar loss of capacity. Devices that were designed to operate using primary alkaline chemistry (or zinc-carbon/chloride) cells may not function with NiMH cells. However, most devices compensate for

5963-417: The equivalent statistic was approximately 60%. This percentage has fallen over time due to the increase in manufacture of lithium-ion batteries: in 2000, almost half of all portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan were NiMH. In 2015 BASF produced a modified microstructure that helped make NiMH batteries more durable, in turn allowing changes to the cell design that saved considerable weight, allowing

6052-454: The exhaust heat recirculation system. In the United States the 2012 model year Prius v includes Toyota's Vehicle Proximity Notification System (VPNS), which is designed to alert pedestrians, the blind, and others of the vehicle's presence due to significant noise reduction typical of a hybrid vehicle traveling at low speeds in EV mode . This type of warning device is mandated in the United States by

6141-488: The exhaust. In aircraft gas turbine engines, "exhaust gas temperature" (EGT) is a primary measure of engine health. Typically the EGT is compared with a primary engine power indication called "engine pressure ratio" (EPR). For example: at full power EPR there will be a maximum permitted EGT limit. Once an engine reaches a stage in its life where it reaches this EGT limit, the engine will require specific maintenance in order to rectify

6230-480: The gases resulting from combustion of the fuel and air mix are called exhaust gases. The composition varies from petrol to diesel engines, but is around these levels: The 10% oxygen for "diesel" is likely if the engine was idling, e.g. in a test rig. It is much less if the engine is running under load, although diesel engines always operate with an excess of air over fuel. The CO content for petrol engines varies from ≈15 ppm for well tuned engine with fuel injection and

6319-411: The good cells start to drive the discharged cell into reverse polarity (i.e. positive anode and negative cathode). Some cameras, GPS receivers and PDAs detect the safe end-of-discharge voltage of the series cells and perform an auto-shutdown, but devices such as flashlights and some toys do not. Irreversible damage from polarity reversal is a particular danger, even when a low voltage-threshold cutout

6408-523: The growth of CO 2 concentrations in the atmosphere which according to the vast majority of the scientific community is causing climate change . Motor vehicles are calculated to generate about 20% of the European Union's man-made CO 2 emissions, with passenger cars contributing about 12%. European emission standards limit the CO 2 emissions of new passenger cars and light vehicles. The European Union average new car CO 2 emissions figure dropped by 5.4% in

6497-402: The manufacturer of paints and paint thinners and other uses. Ozone is beneficial in the upper atmosphere, but at ground level ozone irritates the respiratory system , causing coughing, choking, and reduced lung capacity. It also has many negative effects throughout the ecosystem. Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries. Carbon monoxide

6586-488: The patent was sold to Texaco , and a week later Texaco was acquired by Chevron . Chevron's Cobasys subsidiary provides these batteries only to large OEM orders. General Motors shut down production of the EV1 , citing lack of battery availability as a chief obstacle. Cobasys control of NiMH batteries created a patent encumbrance for large automotive NiMH batteries. Motor vehicle emissions Exhaust gas or flue gas

6675-407: The pollution of exhaust gases using a catalyst. Scrubbers in ships intend to remove the sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) of marine exhaust gases. The regulations on marine sulfur dioxide emissions are tightening, however only a small number of special areas worldwide have been designated for low sulfur diesel fuel use only. Air pollution from fossil fuel use by industry, power generation, and transportation

6764-442: The positive electrode is similar to that of the nickel–cadmium cell (NiCd), with both using nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH). However, the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of cadmium . NiMH batteries can have two to three times the capacity of NiCd batteries of the same size, with significantly higher energy density , although only about half that of lithium-ion batteries . They are typically used as

6853-502: The premium-level Prius v Five. The Prius v Three adds standard display audio with navigation and the Toyota Entune multimedia system. In addition to standard features on the Prius v Two and Three, the Prius v Five adds standard SofTex-trimmed seats, heated front seats, three-door smart key , 17-inch alloy wheels, LED headlamps, and fog lamps. All trims come with a Bluetooth wireless connection for compatible hands-free phone calls and

6942-430: The problem. The amount the EGT is below the EGT limit is called EGT margin. The EGT margin of an engine will be greatest when the engine is new, or has been overhauled. For most airlines, this information is also monitored remotely by the airline maintenance department by means of ACARS . In jet engines and rocket engines , exhaust from propelling nozzles which in some applications shows shock diamonds . Flue gas

7031-481: The risk of lung cancer and colorectal cancer. and inhalation of such particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis and heart disease. In a 2005 U.S. EPA study the largest emissions of NO x came from on road motor vehicles, with the second largest contributor being non-road equipment which is mostly gasoline and diesel stations. The resulting nitric acid may be washed into soil, where it becomes nitrate , which

7120-409: The seven-seat released in Europe. A total of 186,989 Prius α/v/+ were sold worldwide in 2012, its first full year in the market. Global sales up to April 2016 totaled 634,000 units. Japan is the main market with 428,400 units sold, representing 67.6% of global sales. The United States ranks second with 148,079 units (23.4%), followed by Europe with 38,200 (6.0%), Canada with 12,670 (2.0%), and the rest of

7209-493: The specific energy to reach 140 watt-hours per kilogram. The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is On the positive electrode, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH), is formed: The reactions proceed left to right during charge and the opposite during discharge. The metal M in the negative electrode of a NiMH cell is an intermetallic compound. Many different compounds have been developed for this application, but those in current use fall into two classes. The most common

7298-457: The third-generation Prius hatch (487). As of April 2016, cumulative sales since introduction totaled 3,430 units. Sales of the Canadian Prius v began in October 2011. The Prius v sold 553 units during 2011, 4,077 in 2012, and fell to 2,640 in 2013, and to 1,442 in 2014. Sales climbed to 2,497 units in 2015. Cumulative sales through April 2016 reached 12,670 units. The European version

7387-449: The vehicle's suspension to cancel longitudinal oscillation when the Prius v is driven over uneven surfaces. The Prius v also includes a redesigned engine coolant heating structure surrounding the vehicle's catalytic converter and the exhaust heat recirculation system has been refined to reduce engine warm-up time and improve occupant heater response time in cold weather. A switch valve electronically controls coolant recirculation through

7476-404: The voltage across the battery, a constant-current (rather than a constant-voltage) charging circuit is used. The temperature-change method is similar in principle to the Δ V method. Because the charging voltage is nearly constant, constant-current charging delivers energy at a near-constant rate. When the cell is not fully charged, most of this energy is converted to chemical energy. However, when

7565-483: The voltage drop of an alkaline battery as it discharges down to about 1 volt. Low internal resistance allows NiMH cells to deliver a nearly constant voltage until they are almost completely discharged. Thus battery-level indicators designed to read alkaline cells overstate the remaining charge when used with NiMH cells, as the voltage of alkaline cells decreases steadily during most of the discharge cycle. Lithium-ion batteries can deliver extremely high power and have

7654-419: The world with 6,600 (1.0%). The following table presents retail sales since deliveries of the Prius α began in May 2011 for the top selling national markets by year through April 2016. On May 13, 2011, Toyota introduced the Prius α in Japan with a sales target of 3,000 units per month. The Prius Alpha is available in a five-seat, two-row model and a seven-seat, three-row model, the latter's third row enabled by

7743-692: The year to the first quarter of 2010, down to 145.6 g/km . Vehicle exhaust contains much water vapour . There has been research into ways that troops in deserts can recover drinkable water from their vehicles' exhaust gases. Emission standards focus on reducing pollutants contained in the exhaust gases from vehicles as well as from industrial flue gas stacks and other air pollution exhaust sources in various large-scale industrial facilities such as petroleum refineries , natural gas processing plants, petrochemical plants and chemical production plants. However, these are often referred to as flue gases . Catalytic converters in cars intend to break down

7832-585: The Δ T and the Δ V charging methods, both manufacturers recommend a further period of trickle charging to follow the initial rapid charge. A resettable fuse in series with the cell, particularly of the bimetallic strip type, increases safety. This fuse opens if either the current or the temperature gets too high. Modern NiMH cells contain catalysts to handle gases produced by over-charging: However, this only works with overcharging currents of up to 0.1  C (that is, nominal capacity divided by ten hours). This reaction causes batteries to heat, ending

7921-500: Was indirectly replaced by the larger XU70 Kluger Hybrid in July 2021. The Prius+ was withdrawn from the European market without being directly replaced, although there are alternatives such as the XA50 RAV4 Hybrid and E210 Corolla Touring Sports Hybrid in the line-up. Nickel%E2%80%93metal hydride battery A nickel–metal hydride battery ( NiMH or Ni–MH ) is a type of rechargeable battery . The chemical reaction at

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