97-619: The Daihatsu Consorte is a small sedan sold by the Japanese automaker Daihatsu from 1969 to 1977. It was based on the Toyota Publica , and its name, meaning " consort " in Italian, reflected Daihatsu's newly established affiliation with Toyota while also continuing the theme started with the preceding Compagno ("companion"). It replaced the Compagno as Daihatsu's passenger vehicle. The Consorte
194-609: A Daihatsu developed engine, while the Publica used a two-cylinder, air-cooled, flat-2 U engine. Initially, the Consorte was available only as a two-door sedan and with Daihatsu's own 1.0-litre FE engine. In June 1971, Publica's 3K 1.2-litre engine was added to the range, both engines only available with 4-speed manual transmission. Facelift model appeared in January 1972. In May 1973, 5-speed manual and 2-speed automatic transmissions added to
291-599: A bridge over the creek in 1747. Peter began the family business on the Bakers Lookout property where he made his home and built the first Studebaker wagon factory. In this factory, Peter manufactured everything, all necessities including products he made in Solingen, Germany, and naturally wagons. Bakers Lookout, the 1740, 100-acre land patent , Hagerstown, Maryland, was the first of many land patents to be acquired by Peter Studebaker. Peter purchased approximately 1500 acres in what
388-401: A car of this configuration is called a saloon ( / s ə ˈ l u n / ). Hatchback sedans are known simply as hatchbacks (not hatchback saloons ); long-wheelbase luxury saloons with a division between the driver and passengers are limousines . In Australia and New Zealand , sedan is now predominantly used; they were previously simply cars. In the 21st century, saloon remains in
485-631: A different grille from all previous Champ models. The closure of the South Bend plant hit the community particularly hard, since Studebaker was the largest employer in St. Joseph County, Indiana . Nearly a quarter of the South Bend work force was African-American. Limited automotive production was consolidated at the company's last remaining production facility in Hamilton, Ontario, which had always been profitable and where Studebaker produced cars until March 1966 under
582-671: A four-door station wagon from 1958 until 1960 in the Rambler and Ambassador series. In 1973, the US government passed Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 216 creating a standard roof strength test to measure the integrity of roof structure in motor vehicles to come into effect some years later. Hardtop sedan body style production ended with the 1978 Chrysler Newport . Roofs were covered with vinyl, and B-pillars were minimized by styling methods like matt black finishes. Stylists and engineers soon developed more subtle solutions. A close-coupled sedan
679-419: A fourth giant combine after Chrysler . This had been unsuccessfully attempted by George W. Mason . In this scheme, Studebaker had the disadvantage that its South Bend location would make consolidation difficult. Its labor costs were also the highest in the industry. Ballooning labor costs (the company had never had an official United Auto Workers (UAW) strike and Studebaker workers and retirees were among
776-432: A part of the proving ground was retained and, as of April 2013 , has been restored to use under the name "New Carlisle Test Facility". For many years a rumor persisted of the existence of a Studebaker graveyard. The rumor was later confirmed to be true when the remains of many prototype automobiles and a few trucks were discovered at a remote, heavily wooded site bounded by the proving grounds' high-speed oval. Most of
873-624: A pattern that spelled "STUDEBAKER" when viewed from the air. Also in 1926, the last of the Detroit plant was moved to South Bend under the control of Harold S Vance , vice president in charge of production and engineering. That year, a new small car, the Erskine Six was launched in Paris, resulting in 26,000 sales abroad and many more in America. By 1929, the sales list had been expanded to 50 models and business
970-406: A price war between Ford and General Motors , which began with Ford's massive increase in production in the spring of 1953—part of Ford's postwar expansion program aimed at restoring it to the position of the largest car maker which GM had held since 1931—could not be equalled by the independent carmakers, for whom the only hope was seen as a merger of Studebaker, Packard , Hudson , and Nash into
1067-574: A railroad train's club carriage (e.g.,, the lounge or parlour carriage). From the 1910s to the 1950s, several United States manufacturers have named models either Sedanet or Sedanette. The term originated as a smaller version of the sedan; however, it has also been used for convertibles and fastback coupes. Models that have been called Sedanet or Sedanette include the 1917 Dort Sedanet, King , 1919 Lexington , 1930s Cadillac Fleetwood Sedanette, 1949 Cadillac Series 62 Sedanette, 1942-1951 Buick Super Sedanet , and 1956 Studebaker . Sedans, as
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#17328758626401164-624: A roof. A one-off instance of similar coachwork is also known in a 1900 De Dion-Bouton Type D. A sedan is typically considered to be a fixed-roof car with at least four seats. Based on this definition, the earliest sedan was the 1911 Speedwell , which was manufactured in the United States. In American English , Latin American Spanish , and Brazilian Portuguese , the term sedan is used (accented as sedán in Spanish). In British English ,
1261-422: A sedan can have four or two doors. Although the sloping rear roofline defined the coupe, the design element has become common on many body styles with manufacturers increasingly "cross-pollinating" the style so that terms such as sedan and coupé have been loosely interpreted as "'four-door coupes' - an inherent contradiction in terms." When a manufacturer produces two-door sedan and four-door sedan versions of
1358-403: A small farmer. In 1918, when Erskine's history of the firm was published, the annual capacity of the seven Studebaker plants was 100,000 automobiles, 75,000 horse-drawn vehicles, and about $ 10,000,000 worth of automobile and vehicle spare parts ($ 202,566,372 in 2023 dollars ). In the preceding seven years, 466,962 horse-drawn vehicles had been sold, as against 277,035 automobiles, but the trend
1455-414: A specific category of automobiles, have had serious social consequences shaped by their design and use. Their compact and fuel-efficient nature has made them a preferred choice for urban and suburban settings, promoting individual mobility. However, this accessibility has contributed to increased urban sprawl and car dependency. Sedans, like other private vehicles, encourage dispersed living patterns, reducing
1552-577: Is a Stretch-Limousine . In the United States, two-door sedan models were marketed as Tudor in the Ford Model A (1927–1931) series. Automakers use different terms to differentiate their products and for Ford's sedan body styles "the tudor (2-door) and fordor (4-door) were marketing terms designed to stick in the minds of the public." Ford continued to use the Tudor name for 5-window coupes, 2-door convertibles, and roadsters since all had two doors. The Tudor name
1649-534: Is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with separate compartments for an engine, passengers, and cargo. The first recorded use of sedan in reference to an automobile body occurred in 1912. The name derives from the 17th-century litter known as a sedan chair, a one-person enclosed box with windows and carried by porters. Variations of the sedan style include the close-coupled sedan, club sedan, convertible sedan, fastback sedan, hardtop sedan, notchback sedan, and sedanet. A sedan ( / s ɪ ˈ d æ n / )
1746-457: Is a body style produced in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s. Their two-box boxy styling made these sedans more like crossover vehicles than traditional three-box sedans. Like other close-coupled body styles, the rear seats are farther forward than a regular sedan. This reduced the length of the body; close-coupled sedans, also known as town sedans, were the shortest of the sedan models offered. Models of close-coupled sedans include
1843-423: Is a car with a closed body (i.e., a fixed metal roof) with the engine, passengers, and cargo in separate compartments. This broad definition does not differentiate sedans from various other car body styles. Still, in practice, the typical characteristics of sedans are: It is sometimes suggested that sedans must have four doors (to provide a simple distinction between sedans and two-door coupés ); others state that
1940-403: Is now known state of Maryland. The home still stands today and is proof of the advanced technology of Peter Studebaker. (see Bakers Lookout Peter Studebakers 1740 home website) In 1747 Peter Studebaker built a road through his owned properties known as Broadfording Wagon Road. The road he built carried heavy traffic to Bakers Lookout's wagon and forging services that were instrumental to expand
2037-490: Is the world’s largest producer of tactical wheeled vehicles. Nevertheless, as Newman and Altman decided not to progress with any Studebaker truck production, the tooling was then sold off again to Kaiser Jeep in late 1965, which continued producing parts for Studebaker trucks for a few more years. Some '1965' model Champ trucks were built in South America using completely knocked-down kits and left-over parts. These models used
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#17328758626402134-676: The Chrysler Imperial , Duesenberg Model A , and Packard 745 A two-door sedan for four or five passengers but with less room for passengers than a standard sedan. A Coach body has no external trunk for luggage. Haajanen says it can be difficult to tell the difference between a Club and a Brougham and a Coach body, as if manufacturers were more concerned with marketing their product than adhering to strict body style definitions. Close-coupled saloons originated as four-door thoroughbred sporting horse-drawn carriages with little room for rear passengers' feet. In automotive use, manufacturers in
2231-659: The E-M-F Company and with the Flanders Automobile Company . The first gasoline automobiles to be fully manufactured by Studebaker were marketed in August 1912. Over the next 50 years, the company established a reputation for quality, durability and reliability. After an unsuccessful 1954 merger with Packard (the Studebaker-Packard Corporation ) and failure to solve chronic postwar cashflow problems,
2328-537: The Everitt-Metzger-Flanders (E-M-F) Company of Detroit and Walkerville, Ontario . Studebaker began making gasoline-engined cars in partnership with Garford in 1904. In 1910, it was decided to refinance and incorporate as the Studebaker Corporation, which was concluded on February 14, 1911, under New Jersey laws. The company discontinued making electric vehicles that same year. The financing
2425-878: The Light Four , Light Six , Special Six , Big Six models, the Dictator , the record-breaking Commander and President , followed by the 1939 Champion . During World War II , Studebaker produced the Studebaker US6 truck in great quantity and the unique M29 Weasel cargo and personnel carrier. Studebaker ranked 28th among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. An assembly plant in California, Studebaker Pacific Corporation, built engine assemblies and nacelles for B-17s and PV-2 Harpoons . After cessation of hostilities, Studebaker returned to building automobiles. Studebaker prepared well in advance for
2522-595: The 'Studebaker Corporation' name was restored in 1962, but the South Bend plant ceased automobile production on December 20, 1963, and the last Studebaker automobile rolled off the Hamilton, Ontario , Canada, assembly line on March 17, 1966. Studebaker continued as an independent manufacturer before merging with Wagner Electric in May 1967 and then Worthington Corporation in February 1968 to form Studebaker-Worthington . The ancestors of
2619-594: The 1630s. Etymologists suggest the name of the chair very probably came through varieties of Italian from the Latin sedere , or the Proto-Indo-European root " sed- " meaning "to sit." The first recorded use of sedan for an automobile body occurred in 1912 when the Studebaker Four and Studebaker Six models were marketed as sedans. There were fully enclosed automobile bodies before 1912. Long before that time,
2716-497: The 1964 models and the ousting of president Sherwood Egbert, on December 9, 1963, the company announced the closure of the South Bend plant. The last Larks and Hawks were assembled on December 20, and the last Avanti was assembled on December 26. To fulfill government contracts, production of military trucks and Zip Vans for the United States Postal Service continued into early 1964. The engine foundry remained open until
2813-417: The 2-door sedans, 4-door sedans, and 1954 Conestoga wagon would sell better than the 2-door coupes, so the company's resources were focused on production of the sedans and the wagon. When the prototype convertible was no longer needed, engineer E. T. Reynolds ordered the car to be stripped and the body sent to the secret graveyard at the proving grounds. A non-engineering employee requested permission to purchase
2910-409: The Bakers Lookout situation, industrious farms, much acreage, on which one finds the necessary resources, lumber, iron ore, oil shale and land selected with stream, spring, or river to hydropower factories, mills and equipment. Peter's technology-enabled expansion of the family business through the famous Conestoga and Prairie Schooner wagon designs. Peter's trade was the stepping-stone that expanded
3007-604: The Champion and Commander adopted a polarizing appearance from Exner's concepts, and were applied to the 1950 Studebaker Starlight coupe. The new trunk design prompted a running joke that one could not tell if the car was coming or going, and appeared to be influenced by the Lockheed P-38 Lightning , particularly by the shortened fuselage with wrap around canopy. During the war the Studebaker Chippewa Factory
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3104-450: The London office. Similar orders were received from the governments of France and Russia. The 1913 six-cylinder models were the first cars to employ the important advancement of monobloc engine casting which became associated with a production-economy drive in the years of the war. At that time, a 28-year-old university graduate engineer, Fred M. Zeder , was appointed chief engineer. He was
3201-582: The Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company, the firm was originally a coachbuilder , manufacturing wagons, buggies, carriages and harnesses. Studebaker entered the automotive business in 1902 with electric vehicles and in 1904 with gasoline vehicles, all sold under the name "Studebaker Automobile Company". Until 1911, its automotive division operated in partnership with the Garford Company of Elyria, Ohio , and after 1909 with
3298-709: The Studebaker family descend from Solingen, Germany . They arrived in America at the port of Philadelphia on September 1, 1736, on the ship Harle , (see Exhibit B) from Rotterdam, Netherlands, (see Exhibit A, p. 11) , original manuscripts now in the Pennsylvania State Library at Harrisburg). This included Peter Studebaker and his wife Anna Margetha Studebaker, Clement Studebaker (Peter's brother) and his wife, Anna Catherina Studebaker and Heinrich Studebaker (Peter's cousin). (see Exhibit A, p. 11) In 1918, Albert Russel Erskine , Studebaker Corporation president, wrote
3395-529: The UAW. Despite a sales uptick in 1962, continuing media reports that Studebaker was about to leave the auto business became a self-fulfilling prophecy as buyers shied away from the company's products for fear of being stuck with an "orphan". NBC reporter Chet Huntley made a television program called "Studebaker – Fight for Survival" which aired on May 18, 1962. By 1963, all of the company's automobiles and trucks were selling poorly. After insufficient initial sales of
3492-515: The United Kingdom used the term to develop the chummy body, where passengers were forced to be friendly because they were tightly packed. They provided weather protection for extra passengers in what would otherwise be a two-seater car. Two-door versions would be described in the United States and France as coach bodies. A postwar example is the Rover 3 Litre Coupé . Produced in the United States from
3589-464: The United States from the early 1950s into the 1970s provided at least a 2-door hardtop model in their range and a 4-door hardtop. The lack of side bracing demanded a strong, heavy chassis frame to combat unavoidable flexing. The pillarless design was also available in four-door models using unibody construction. For example, Chrysler moved to unibody designs for most of its models in 1960 and American Motors Corporation offered four-door sedans, as well
3686-405: The anticipated postwar market and launched the slogan "First by far with a post-war car". This advertising premise was substantiated by Virgil Exner 's designs, notably the 1947 Studebaker Starlight coupé, which introduced innovative styling features that influenced later cars, including the flatback "trunk" instead of the tapered look of the time, and a wrap-around rear window. For 1950 and 1951,
3783-670: The automobile business on March 17, 1966, after an announcement on March 4. A turquoise and white Cruiser sedan was the last of fewer than 9,000 1966 models manufactured (of which 2,045 were built in the 1966 calendar year ). In reality, the move to Canada had been a tactic by which production could be slowly wound down and remaining dealer franchise obligations honored. The 1965 and 1966 Studebaker cars used "McKinnon" engines sourced from General Motors Canada Limited, which were based on Chevrolet's 230-cubic-inch six-cylinder and 283 cubic-inch V8 engines when Studebaker-built engines were no longer available. The closure adversely affected not only
3880-429: The book, "History of the Studebaker Corporation", including the 1918 annual report, "Written for the information of the 3,000 stockholders of the Studebaker Corporation, the 12,000 dealers in its products living throughout the world, its 15,000 employees and numberless friends." (see Exhibit A, p. 9) This book was verified by lawyers and accountants and all board members and was a legal document. (see Exhibit A, p. 7) In
3977-453: The brothers and their parents are reproduced in the 1918 company history, which was written by Erskine after he became president, in memory of John M., whose portrait appears on the front cover. In 1740 Peter Studebaker built his home on a property known as “Bakers Lookout”. (The home still stands in Hagerstown, Maryland .) The first Studebaker wagon factory was built in the same year next to
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4074-458: The car in 1965 under the brand name "Avanti II". (See main article Avanti (car) .) They likewise purchased the rights and tooling for Studebaker's trucks, along with the company's vast stock of parts and accessories. The plant, alongside Studebaker's General Products Division, was bought by Kaiser Jeep Corporation who used it to produce military vehicles. That unit formed the nucleus for what would later become AM General Corporation, which today
4171-520: The car is now in a private collection of Studebaker automobiles. In May 1967, Studebaker and its diversified units were merged with Wagner Electric . In November 1967, Studebaker was merged with the Worthington Corporation to form Studebaker-Worthington . The Studebaker name disappeared from the American business scene in 1979, when McGraw-Edison acquired Studebaker-Worthington, except for
4268-406: The complete car, rather than see it rot away with the other prototypes. Chief engineer Gene Hardig discussed the request with E. T. Reynolds. They agreed to let the employee purchase the car on the condition that the employee never sell it. In the 1970s, the car was re-discovered behind a South Bend gas station and no longer owned by the former employee. After eventually passing through several owners,
4365-512: The degree that it even used the central body section of the company's 1953–58 cars, but was a clever enough design to be popular in its first year, selling over 130,000 units and delivering a $ 28.6 million profit to the automaker ($ 298,928,767 in 2023 dollars ). "S-P rose from 56,920 units in 1958 to 153,844 in 1959." However, Lark sales began to drop precipitously after the Big Three manufacturers introduced their own compact models in 1960, and
4462-482: The density of communities and limiting opportunities for local social interactions. This can lead to a decline in neighborhood growth and an increase in reliance on cars for even short trips, increasing environmental and health concerns through CO2 and Greenhouse Gas emissions and reduced physical activity . Furthermore, while sedans are a practical solution for families and individuals, their role in encouraging road-centric urban planning has been criticized for reducing
4559-397: The division, which still exists today as AM General . The grove of 5,000 trees planted on the proving grounds in 1937, spelling out the Studebaker name, still stands and has proven to be a popular topic on such satellite photography sites as Google Earth . The proving grounds were acquired by Bendix in 1966 and Bosch in 1996. After Bosch closed its South Bend operation in 2011,
4656-466: The early 1960s, Studebaker had begun to diversify away from automobiles. Numerous companies were purchased, bringing Studebaker into such diverse fields as the manufacture of tire studs and missile components. The company's 1963 annual report listed the following divisions: Having built the Wright R-1820 under license during World War II, Studebaker also attempted to build what would perhaps have been
4753-512: The enterprise. From 1950 Studebaker declined rapidly, and by 1954 was losing money. It negotiated a strategic takeover by Packard, a smaller but less financially troubled car manufacturer . However, the cash position was worse than it had led Packard to believe, and by 1956, the company (renamed Studebaker-Packard Corporation and under the guidance of CEO James J. Nance ) was nearly bankrupt , though it continued to make and market both Studebaker and Packard cars until 1958. The "Packard" element
4850-402: The executive committee in 1897, the firm had an engineer working on a motor vehicle. At first, Studebaker opted for electric (battery-powered) over gasoline propulsion. While manufacturing its own Studebaker Electric vehicles from 1902 to 1911, the company entered into body-manufacturing and distribution agreements with two makers of gasoline-powered vehicles, Garford of Elyria, Ohio , and
4947-606: The factory and to the mill. Although Peter Studebaker's life in the colonies was short, less than 18 years, the family business flourished through his descendants (see Exhibit M) and apprentices expanded the vast land holdings enlarging the Studebaker family business and its industrious wagon-making region. Peter's trade secrets were passed from father to son, generation to generation. The Studebaker family business plan, purchasing, again and again, vast amounts of land, on which they built industrious farms with mills and wagon making facilities and wagon selling facilities, each identical to
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#17328758626405044-575: The firm was cutting wages and laying off workers. Company president Albert Russel Erskine maintained faith in the Rockne and rashly had the directors declare huge dividends in 1930 and 1931. He also acquired 95% of the White Motor Company 's stock at an inflated price and in cash. By 1933, the banks were owed $ 6 million, ($ 141,223,650 in 2023 dollars ) though current assets exceeded that figure. On March 18, 1933, Studebaker entered receivership . Erskine
5141-401: The first of a trio of brilliant technicians, with Owen R. Skelton and Carl Breer , who launched the successful 1918 models, and were known as " The Three Musketeers ". They left in 1920 to form a consultancy, later to become the nucleus of Chrysler Engineering. The replacement chief engineer was Guy P. Henry, who introduced molybdenum steel, an improved clutch design, and presided over
5238-782: The foundation of the family fortune and the corporation which now bears his name." (see Exhibit D) "John Studebaker, father of the five brothers [that began the Studebaker Corporation] was the son of Peter Studebaker. (see Exhibit A, p. 13) . John Clement Studebaker (son of Clement Studebaker and Sarah Rensel) was born February 8, 1799, Westmorland, PA, and died in 1877 in South Bend, St. Joseph, IN. John Studebaker (1799–1877) moved to Ohio in 1835 with his wife Rebecca (née Mohler) (1802–1887). The five sons were, in order of birth: Henry (1826–1895), Clement (1831–1901), John Mohler (1833–1917), Peter Everst (1836–1897) and Jacob Franklin (1844–1887). The boys had five sisters. Photographs of
5335-456: The highest paid in the industry), quality control issues, and the new-car sales war between Ford and General Motors in the early 1950s wrought havoc on Studebaker's balance sheet . Professional financial managers stressed short-term earnings rather than long-term vision. Momentum was sufficient to keep going for another 10 years, but stiff competition and price -cutting by the Big Three doomed
5432-546: The home. On Bakers Lookout Peter, master of the German Cutler Guild, built the first Studebaker home, the first Studebaker wagon factory where he began forging and tempering steel and seasoning wood in the colonies. Peter Studebaker built the first Studebaker mill and a wagon road. Broadfording Wagon Road was built to run through the property. Peter owned property on both sides of the Conococheague Creek , so he built
5529-618: The largest aircraft piston engine ever built. With 24 cylinders in an "H" configuration , a bore of 8 in (203 mm) and stroke of 7.75 in (197 mm), displacement would have been 9,349 cubic inches (153.20 L), hence the H-9350 designation. It was not completed. 635 S. Lafayette Blvd., South Bend, IN Clement and Henry Studebaker Jr., became blacksmiths and foundrymen in South Bend, Indiana , in February 1852. They first made metal parts for freight wagons and later expanded into
5626-491: The leadership of Gordon Grundy. It was projected that the Canadian operation could break even on production of about 20,000 cars a year, and Studebaker's announced goal was 30,000–40,000 1965 models. While 1965 production was just shy of the 20,000 figure, the company's directors felt that the small profits were not enough to justify continued investment. Rejecting Grundy's request for funds to tool up for 1967 models, Studebaker left
5723-599: The line up for 1.2-litre models only, two-door coupe version also added to the lineup. Followed by four-door sedan version in October 1973, but only sold until November 1974, with the launch of the Daihatsu Charmant . The 2-door sedan and coupe were superseded in 1977 (in February for 1.0-litre models and November for 1.2-litre models) by the Daihatsu Charade . Sedan (car) A sedan or saloon ( British English )
5820-407: The long-established names of particular motor races. In other languages, sedans are known as berline ( French ), berlina ( European Spanish , European Portuguese , Romanian , and Italian ), though they may include hatchbacks. These names, like the sedan, all come from forms of passenger transport used before the advent of automobiles. In German , a sedan is called Limousine and a limousine
5917-759: The manufacture of complete wagons. At this time, John M. was making wheelbarrows in Placerville, California . The site of his business is California Historic Landmark #142 at 543 Main St, Placerville. The first major expansion in Henry and Clem's South Bend business came from their being in the right place to meet the needs of the California Gold Rush that began in 1849. From his wheelbarrow enterprise at Placerville, John M. had amassed $ 8,000 ($ 292,992 in 2023 dollars ). In April 1858, he quit and moved out to apply this to financing
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#17328758626406014-436: The mid-1920s to the mid-1950s, the name club sedan was used for highly appointed models using the sedan chassis. Some people describe a club sedan as a two-door vehicle with a body style otherwise identical to the sedan models in the range. Others describe a club sedan as having either two or four doors and a shorter roof and therefore less interior space than the other sedan models in the range. Club sedan originates from
6111-494: The old Detroit Packard plant and returned the then-new Packard plant on Conner Avenue (where Packard production had moved in 1954, at the same time Packard took its body-making operations in house after its longtime body supplier, Briggs Manufacturing Company , was acquired by Chrysler in late 1953) to its lessor, Chrysler. The company became the American importer for Mercedes-Benz , Auto Union , and DKW automobiles and many Studebaker dealers sold those brands, as well. C-W gained
6208-429: The plant's 700 employees, who had developed a sense of collegiality around group benefits such as employee parties and day trips, but the city of Hamilton as a whole; Studebaker had been Hamilton's 10th-largest employer. In 1965, Gordon Grundy of Studebaker Canada was sent by Studebaker management to Japan to investigate potential links with Nissan and Toyota , to sell their vehicles badged as Studebakers. While Grundy
6305-442: The prototypes were left to rot in direct contact with the ground and full exposure to the weather and falling trees. Attempts to remove some of these rusting bodies resulted in the bodies crumbling under their own weight as they were moved, so now they exist only in photographs. However, there were a few notable exceptions. A few of the prototypes were rescued. The only example of a never-produced 1947 Champion wood-sided station wagon
6402-402: The same book, Albert Russel Erskin, accurately wrote that Peter Studebaker was the "wagon-maker, which trade later became the foundation of the family fortune and the corporation which now bears his name." (see Exhibit A, p. 11) "The tax list of York County, Pennsylvania, in 1798–9 showed among the taxable were Peter Studebaker Sr. and Peter Studebaker Jr. wagon-makers, which trade later became
6499-513: The same fully enclosed but horse-drawn carriages were known as a brougham in the United Kingdom, berline in France, and berlina in Italy; the latter two have become the terms for sedans in these countries. It is sometimes stated that the 1899 Renault Voiturette Type B (a 2-seat car with an extra external seat for a footman/mechanic) was the first sedan, since it is the first known car to be produced with
6596-458: The same model range. Several sedans have a fastback profile but a hatchback-style tailgate is hinged at the roof. Examples include the Peugeot 309 , Škoda Octavia , Hyundai Elantra XD , Chevrolet Malibu Maxx , BMW 4 Series Grand Coupe , Audi A5 Sportback , and Tesla Model S . The names hatchback and sedan are often used to differentiate between body styles of the same model. To avoid confusion,
6693-531: The same model, the shape and position of the greenhouse on both versions may be identical, with only the B-pillar positioned further back to accommodate the longer doors on the two-door versions. A sedan chair, a sophisticated litter , is an enclosed box with windows used to transport one seated person. Porters at the front and rear carry the chair with horizontal poles. Litters date back to long before ancient Egypt, India, and China. Sedan chairs were developed in
6790-430: The situation became critical once the so-called "senior compacts" debuted for 1961. The Lark had provided a temporary reprieve, but nothing proved enough to stop the financial bleeding. A labor strike occurred at the South Bend plant starting on January 1, 1962, and lasting 38 days. The strike came to an end after an agreement was reached between company president Sherwood H. Egbert and Walter P. Reuther , president of
6887-494: The six-cylinders-only policy favored by new president Albert Russel Erskine , who replaced Fred Fish in July 1915. In 1925, the corporation's most successful distributor and dealer Paul G. Hoffman came to South Bend as vice president in charge of sales. In 1926, Studebaker became the first automobile manufacturer in the United States to open a controlled outdoor proving ground on which, in 1937, would be planted 5,000 pine trees in
6984-498: The still existing Studebaker Leasing, based in Jericho, NY. McGraw-Edison was itself purchased in 1985 by Cooper Industries , which sold off its auto-parts divisions to Federal-Mogul some years later. As detailed above, some vehicles were assembled from left-over parts and identified as Studebakers by the purchasers of the Avanti brand and surplus material from Studebaker at South Bend. By
7081-509: The subject of $ 1.25 million investment and was providing employment that supported 500 families. Few industrialists were prepared for the Wall Street Crash of October 1929. Though Studebaker's production and sales had been booming, the market collapsed and plans were laid for a new, small, low-cost car—the Rockne . However, times were too bad to sell even inexpensive cars. Within a year,
7178-472: The term hatchback sedan is not often used. There have been many sedans with a fastback style. Hardtop sedans were a popular body style in the United States from the 1950s to the 1970s. Hardtops are manufactured without a B-pillar leaving uninterrupted open space or, when closed, glass along the side of the vehicle. The top was intended to look like a convertible's top. However, it was fixed and made of hard material that did not fold. All manufacturers in
7275-401: The transportation industry. Thomas E. Bonsall, wrote "Much more than the story of a family business; it is also, in microcosm, the story of the industrial development of America." Peter Studebaker died in the mid-1750s. John M. Studebaker had always viewed the automobile as complementary to the horse-drawn wagon, pointing out that the expense of maintaining a car might be beyond the resources of
7372-415: The union contract expired in May 1964. The supply of engines produced in the first half of 1964 supported Zip Van assembly until the government contract was fulfilled, and automobile production at the Canadian plant until the end of the 1964 model year. The Avanti model name, tooling, and plant space were sold off to Leo Newman and Nate Altman, a longtime South Bend Studebaker-Packard dealership. They revived
7469-413: The use of idle car plants and tax relief on their aircraft profits while Studebaker-Packard received further working capital to continue car production. The automobiles that came after the diversification process began , including the redesigned compact Lark (1959) and the Avanti sports car (1962), were based on old chassis and engine designs. The Lark, in particular, was based on existing parts to
7566-477: The vehicles were well built. In 1913, the company experienced the first major labor strike in the automotive industry, the 1913 Studebaker strike . The corporation benefited from enormous orders cabled by the British government at the outbreak of World War I . They included 3,000 transport wagons, 20,000 sets of artillery harness, 60,000 artillery saddles, and ambulances, as well as hundreds of cars purchased through
7663-506: The viability of public transportation and active transport modes like walking and cycling. In cities heavily dependent on sedans, air pollution, noise, and traffic fatalities often increase, posing public health risks and environmental challenges . Studebaker Studebaker was an American wagon and automobile manufacturer based in South Bend, Indiana , with a building at 1600 Broadway, Times Square , Midtown Manhattan , New York City . Founded in 1852 and incorporated in 1868 as
7760-403: The west. The Maryland Historical Trust WA-I-306 writes 04/03/2001, that this road was "One of Washington County's earliest thoroughfares, Broadfording (Wagon) Road was already in existence in 1747." (see Exhibit I) The wagon transportation industry boomed. On the property, Broadfording Wagon Road built in 1740 by Peter Studebaker, went directly through the property to allow access from the home to
7857-734: Was 180,000 cars, requiring 23,000 employees. The original South Bend vehicle plant continued to be used for small forgings, springs, and making some body parts. Separate buildings totaling over one million square feet were added in 1922–1923 for the Light, Special, and Big Six models. At any one time, 5,200 bodies were in process. South Bend's Plant 2 made chassis for the Light Six and had a foundry of 575,000 sq ft (53,400 m ), producing 600 tons of castings daily. Plant 3 at Detroit made complete chassis for Special and Big Six models in over 750,000 sq ft (70,000 m ) of floor space and
7954-459: Was achieved on March 9, 1935. A new car was put on the drawing boards under chief engineer Delmar "Barney" Roos —the Champion . Its final styling was designed by Virgil Exner and Raymond Loewy . The Champion doubled the company's previous-year sales when it was introduced in 1939. From the 1920s to the 1930s, the South Bend company had originated many style and engineering milestones , including
8051-531: Was all too clear. The regular manufacture of horse-drawn vehicles ended when Erskine ordered the removal of the last wagon gear in 1919. To its range of cars, Studebaker would now add a truck line to replace the horse-drawn wagons. Buses , fire engines , and even small rail locomotive -kits were produced using the same powerful six-cylinder engines. In 1895, John M. Studebaker's son-in-law Fred Fish urged for development of 'a practical horseless carriage'. When, on Peter Studebaker's death, Fish became chairman of
8148-501: Was also speaking with Toyota executives, Nissan ended negotiations, leaving Grundy empty-handed. Many of Studebaker's dealers either closed, took on other automakers' product lines, or converted to Mercedes-Benz dealerships following the closure of the Canadian plant. Studebaker's General Products Division, which built vehicles to fulfill defense contracts, was acquired by Kaiser Industries , which built military and postal vehicles in South Bend. In 1970, American Motors (AMC) purchased
8245-487: Was also used to describe the Škoda 1101/1102 introduced in 1946. The public popularized the name for a two-door model and was then applied by the automaker to the entire line that included a four-door sedan and station wagon versions. In the United States, the notchback sedan distinguishes models with a horizontal trunk lid. The term is generally only referred to in marketing when it is necessary to differentiate between two sedan body styles (e.g., notchback and fastback) of
8342-606: Was at Walkerville, Ontario, Canada, where complete cars were assembled from components that had been shipped from South Bend and Detroit factories or locally made in Canada, and is in close proximity to the current Ford Windsor Engine Factory. Output was designated for the Canadian (left-hand drive) and British Empire (right-hand drive) trade. By locating it there, Studebaker could advertise the cars as "British-built" and qualify for reduced tariffs. This manufacturing facility had been acquired from E-M-F in 1910 (see above). By 1929, it had been
8439-439: Was derived from Toyota's Publica and was sold at a newly established Japanese dealership network intended to exclusively sell the Publica. This was called Toyota Publica Store until 1966 when it was renamed Toyota Corolla Store to sell the all-new Toyota Corolla . This arrangement allowed Toyota to sell the Publica at recently acquired Daihatsu dealerships, giving Daihatsu a car larger than kei class cars . The Consorte used
8536-464: Was handled by Lehman Brothers and Goldman Sachs who provided board representatives including Henry Goldman whose contribution was especially esteemed. After taking over E-M-F's Detroit facilities, Studebaker sought to remedy customer dissatisfaction complaints by paying mechanics to visit each disgruntled owner and replace defective parts in their vehicles, at a total cost of US$ 1 million ($ 15,209,302 in 2023 dollars ). The worst problem
8633-525: Was located between Clark Avenue and Scotten Avenue south of Fort Street. Plant 5 was the service parts store and shipping facility, plus the executive offices of various technical departments. The Detroit facilities were moved to South Bend in 1926, except that the Piquette Avenue Plant (Plant 10) was retained for assembly of the Erskine between 1927 and 1929 and the Rockne (1931–1933). Plant 7
8730-524: Was negotiating with Nissan to possibly import the Nissan Cedric , the Studebaker board found out about the Toyota Century , which was not introduced until February 1968, and then the attorney representing the board, former United States Vice President Richard Nixon , asked Grundy to contact Toyota, as well. Toyota was insulted at being Studebaker's second choice, and when word got out to Nissan that Grundy
8827-443: Was occasionally driven around South Bend by engineers. Additional structural reinforcements were needed to reduce body flexure. Even though the car was equipped with the 232 cu. in. V-8, the added structural weight increased the car's 0-60 mph acceleration time to an unacceptable level. In addition, the company did not have the financial resources to add another body type to the model line. The company's leadership mistakenly thought
8924-445: Was pushed out of the presidency in favor of more cost-conscious managers. Erskine committed suicide on July 1, 1933, leaving successors Harold Vance and Paul Hoffman to deal with the problems. By December 1933, the company was back in profit with $ 5.75 million working capital and 224 new Studebaker dealers, while the purchase of White was cancelled. With the substantial aid of Lehman Brothers , full refinancing and reorganization
9021-403: Was rear-axle failure. Hendry comments that the frenzied testing resulted in Studebaker's aim to design 'for life'—and the consequent emergence of "a series of really rugged cars... the famous Big Six and Special Six " listed at $ 2,350 ($ 35,742 in 2023 dollars ). From that time, Studebaker's own marque was put on all new automobiles produced at the former E-M-F facilities as an assurance that
9118-502: Was restored and is on display at the Studebaker National Museum . Another prototype initially slated for disposal at the proving grounds escaped the fate of the others. In late 1952 Studebaker produced one 1953 Commander convertible as an engineering study to determine if the model could be profitably mass-produced. The car was based on the 1953 2-door hardtop coupe. The car was later modified to 1954-model specifications, and
9215-432: Was retained until 1962, when the name reverted to "Studebaker Corporation". A three-year management contract was made by CEO Nance with aircraft maker Curtiss-Wright in 1956 with the aim of improving finances due to Studebaker's experience building aircraft engines during the war and military grade trucks. C-W's president, Roy T. Hurley, attempted to reduce labor costs. Under C-W's guidance, Studebaker-Packard also sold
9312-568: Was so good that 90% of earnings were being paid out as dividends to shareholders in a highly competitive environment. However, the end of that year ushered in the Great Depression that resulted in many layoffs and massive national unemployment for several years. Studebaker's total plant area in Indiana was 225 acres (0.91 km ), spread over three locations, with buildings occupying 7.5 million square feet of floor space. Annual production capacity
9409-564: Was the primary location for aircraft engines used in the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and the marketing department attempted to evoke a reference to their contribution to the war effort. Studebaker's strong postwar management team including president Paul G Hoffman and Roy Cole (vice president, engineering) had left by 1949 and was replaced by more cautious executives who failed to meet the competitive challenge brought on by Henry Ford II and his Whiz Kids . Massive discounting in
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