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43-446: A drug is any chemical substance other than a food or device that affects the function of living things. Drug(s) or D.R.U.G.S. may also refer to: Drug A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation , injection , smoking , ingestion , absorption via

86-572: A patch on the skin, suppository , or dissolution under the tongue . In pharmacology , a drug is a chemical substance, typically of known structure, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. A pharmaceutical drug , also called a medication or medicine, is a chemical substance used to treat , cure, prevent , or diagnose a disease or to promote well-being . Traditionally drugs were obtained through extraction from medicinal plants , but more recently also by organic synthesis . Pharmaceutical drugs may be used for

129-468: A pharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription, and prescription only medicines , which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional , usually a physician . In the United Kingdom, behind-the-counter medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. These medications are designated by the letter P on

172-470: A stimulant , a sedative , a euphoriant and an anesthetic . The roots of the kava plant are used to produce a drink consumed throughout the cultures of the Pacific Ocean. Some shamans from different cultures use entheogens, defined as "generating the divine within," to achieve religious ecstasy . Amazonian shamans use ayahuasca (yagé), a hallucinogenic brew, for this purpose. Mazatec shamans have

215-419: A study drug , is methylphenidate branded commonly as Ritalin and used for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy . At high doses methylphenidate can become highly addictive . Serious addiction can lead to psychosis , anxiety and heart problems, and the use of this drug is related to a rise in suicides, and overdoses. Evidence for use outside of student settings

258-438: A description of the language in general use. Such a dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary (Language for General Purpose). Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g. legal lexicography . Such

301-402: A dictionary is usually called a specialized dictionary or Language for specific purposes dictionary and following Nielsen 1994, specialized dictionaries are either multi-field, single-field or sub-field dictionaries. It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of applied linguistics , as the chief object of study in lexicography

344-432: A dictionary), 'dictionary use' (or observing the reference acts and skills of dictionary users), and 'dictionary IT' (or applying computer aids to the process of dictionary compilation). One important consideration is the status of 'bilingual lexicography', or the compilation and use of the bilingual dictionary in all its aspects (see e.g. Nielsen 1994). In spite of a relatively long history of this type of dictionary, it

387-649: A dictionary. They are responsible for arranging lexical material (usually alphabetically ) to facilitate understanding and navigation. Coined in English 1680, the word "lexicography" derives from the Greek λεξικογράφος ( lexikographos ), "lexicographer", from λεξικόν ( lexicon ), neut. of λεξικός lexikos , "of or for words", from λέξις ( lexis ), "speech", "word" (in turn from λέγω ( lego ), "to say", "to speak" ) and γράφω ( grapho ), "to scratch, to inscribe, to write". Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and

430-412: A limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders . Pharmaceutical drugs are often classified into drug classes —groups of related drugs that have similar chemical structures , the same mechanism of action (binding to the same biological target ), a related mode of action , and that are used to treat the same disease. The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC),

473-500: A long and continuous tradition of religious use of Salvia divinorum , a psychoactive plant. Its use is to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions. Silene undulata is regarded by the Xhosa people as a sacred plant and used as an entheogen. Its roots are traditionally used to induce vivid (and according to the Xhosa, prophetic) lucid dreams during

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516-632: A particular mutation in the EGFR gene. Some drugs are specifically approved for certain genotypes. Vemurafenib is such a case which is used for melanoma patients who carry a mutation in BRAF gene. The number of people who benefit from a drug determines if drug trials are worth carrying out, given that phase III trials may cost between $ 100 million and $ 700 million per drug. This is the motivation behind personalized medicine , that is, to develop drugs that are adapted to individual patients. A medication or medicine

559-422: A synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean a branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language. A person devoted to lexicography is called a lexicographer and is, according to a jest of Samuel Johnson , a "harmless drudge". Generally, lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide

602-675: A unique ATC code , which is an alphanumeric code that assigns it to specific drug classes within the ATC system. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System . This groups drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties. Some religions, particularly ethnic religions , are based completely on the use of certain drugs, known as entheogens , which are mostly hallucinogens ,— psychedelics , dissociatives , or deliriants . Some entheogens include kava which can act as

645-487: Is a drug taken to cure or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition. The use may also be as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms. Dispensing of medication is often regulated by governments into three categories— over-the-counter medications, which are available in pharmacies and supermarkets without special restrictions; behind-the-counter medicines, which are dispensed by

688-582: Is limited but suggests that it is commonplace. Intravenous use of methylphenidate can lead to emphysematous damage to the lungs, known as Ritalin lung . Other drugs known as designer drugs are produced. An early example of what today would be labelled a 'designer drug' was LSD , which was synthesised from ergot . Other examples include analogs of performance-enhancing drugs such as designer steroids taken to improve physical capabilities; these are sometimes used (legally or not) for this purpose, often by professional athletes. Other designer drugs mimic

731-657: Is often said to be less developed in a number of respects than its unilingual counterpart, especially in cases where one of the languages involved is not a major language. Not all genres of reference works are available in interlingual versions, e.g. LSP , learners' and encyclopedic types, although sometimes these challenges produce new subtypes, e.g. 'semi-bilingual' or 'bilingualised' dictionaries such as Hornby's (Oxford) Advanced Learner's Dictionary English-Chinese , which have been developed by translating existing monolingual dictionaries (see Marello 1998). Traces of lexicography can be identified as early late 4th millennium BCE, with

774-631: Is the dictionary (see e.g. Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp 2009). Lexicography is the practice of creating books, computer programs, or databases that reflect lexicographical work and are intended for public use. These include dictionaries and thesauri which are widely accessible resources that present various aspects of lexicology, such as spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. Lexicographers are tasked with defining simple words as well as figuring out how compound or complex words or words with many meanings can be clearly explained. They also make decisions regarding which words should be kept, added, or removed from

817-508: Is the use of a drug (legal, controlled, or illegal) with the primary intention of altering the state of consciousness through alteration of the central nervous system in order to create positive emotions and feelings. The hallucinogen LSD is a psychoactive drug commonly used as a recreational drug. Ketamine is a drug used for anesthesia , and is also used as a recreational drug, both in powder and liquid form, for its hallucinogenic and dissociative effects . Some national laws prohibit

860-571: The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), an Indian federal law enforcement and intelligence agency under the Ministry of Home Affairs , is tasked with combating drug trafficking and assisting international use of illegal substances under the provisions of Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act . Lexicographer There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology , as distinct from lexicography. Some use "lexicology" as

903-478: The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs exist for the purpose of their prohibition . In English, the noun "drug" is thought to originate from Old French " drogue ", possibly deriving from " droge ( vate )" from Middle Dutch meaning "dry (barrels)", referring to medicinal plants preserved as dry matter in barrels. In the 1990s however, Spanish lexicographer Federico Corriente Córdoba documented

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946-541: The 15th century, lexicography flourished. Dictionaries became increasingly widespread, and their purpose shifted from a way to store lexical knowledge to a mode of disseminating lexical information. Modern lexicographical practices began taking shape during the 18th and 19th centuries, led by notable lexicographers such as Samuel Johnson , Vladimir Dal , the Brothers Grimm , Noah Webster , James Murray , Peter Mark Roget , Joseph Emerson Worcester , and others. During

989-452: The 20th century, the invention of computers changed lexicography again. With access to large databases, finding lexical evidence became significantly faster and easier. Corpus research also enables lexicographers to discriminate different senses of a word based on said evidence. Additionally, lexicographers were now able to work nonlinearly, rather than being bound to a traditional lexicographical ordering like alphabetical ordering . In

1032-630: The United States . Where it is legislated against, the degree of prohibition also varies. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States is a federal agency responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and supervision of food safety , tobacco products , dietary supplements , prescription and over-the-counter medications , vaccines , biopharmaceuticals , blood transfusions , medical devices , electromagnetic radiation emitting devices, cosmetics , animal foods and veterinary drugs . In India,

1075-466: The compilation of well-crafted dictionaries requires careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects: One important goal of lexicography is to keep the lexicographic information costs incurred by dictionary users as low as possible. Nielsen (2008) suggests relevant aspects for lexicographers to consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users' impression and actual use of specific dictionaries. Theoretical lexicography concerns

1118-499: The discipline begins to develop more steadily. Lengthier glosses started to emerge in the literary cultures of antiquity, including Greece, Rome , China, India, Sasanian Persia , and the Middle East. In 636, Isidore of Seville published the first formal etymological compendium. The word dictionarium was first applied to this type of text by the late 14th century. With the invention and spread of Gutenberg's printing press in

1161-444: The effects of psychoactive drugs. Since the late 1990s there has been the identification of many of these synthesised drugs. In Japan and the United Kingdom this has spurred the addition of many designer drugs into a newer class of controlled substances known as a temporary class drug . Synthetic cannabinoids have been produced for a longer period of time and are used in the designer drug synthetic cannabis . Recreational drug use

1204-572: The first known examples being Sumerian cuneiform texts uncovered in the city of Uruk . Ancient lexicography usually consisted of word lists documenting a language's lexicon . Other early word lists have been discovered in Egyptian , Akkadian , Sanskrit , and Eblaite , and take the shape of mono- and bilingual word lists. They were organized in different ways including by subject and part of speech. The first extensive glosses , or word lists with accompanying definitions, began to appear around 300 BCE, and

1247-423: The function of the central nervous system , altering perception , mood or consciousness . These drugs are divided into different groups like: stimulants , depressants , antidepressants , anxiolytics , antipsychotics , and hallucinogens . These psychoactive drugs have been proven useful in treating wide range of medical conditions including mental disorders around the world. The most widely used drugs in

1290-438: The initiation process of shamans , classifying it a naturally occurring oneirogen similar to the more well-known dream herb Calea ternifolia . Peyote , a small spineless cactus , has been a major source of psychedelic mescaline and has probably been used by Native Americans for at least five thousand years. Most mescaline is now obtained from a few species of columnar cacti in particular from San Pedro and not from

1333-410: The label. The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country. Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them. Those that are not patented (or with expired patents) are called generic drugs since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from

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1376-408: The most widely used drug classification system, assigns drugs a unique ATC code, which is an alphanumeric code that assigns it to specific drug classes within the ATC system. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System . This classifies drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties. Psychoactive drugs are substances that affect

1419-402: The patent holder. Pharmaceutical drugs are usually categorised into drug classes . A group of drugs will share a similar chemical structure , or have the same mechanism of action , the same related mode of action or target the same illness or related illnesses. The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC), the most widely used drug classification system, assigns drugs

1462-459: The possible origin of the word in {ḥṭr} an early romanized form of Al-Andalus language from Northwestern part of the Iberian peninsula . The term could approximately be transcribed as حطروكة or hatruka . The term "drug" has become a skunked term with negative connotation, being used as a synonym for illegal substances like cocaine or heroin or for drugs used recreationally . In other contexts

1505-456: The proviso that it can only be used for personal use. It can be used in the leaf form of marijuana (grass) , or in the resin form of hashish . Marijuana is a more mild form of cannabis than hashish. There may be an age restriction on the consumption and purchase of legal recreational drugs. Some recreational drugs that are legal and accepted in many places include alcohol , tobacco , betel nut , and caffeine products, and in some areas of

1548-677: The route of administration Numerous governmental offices in many countries deal with the control and supervision of drug manufacture and use, and the implementation of various drug laws. The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is an international treaty brought about in 1961 to prohibit the use of narcotics save for those used in medical research and treatment. In 1971, a second treaty the Convention on Psychotropic Substances had to be introduced to deal with newer recreational psychoactive and psychedelic drugs. The legal status of Salvia divinorum varies in many countries and even in states within

1591-446: The same aspects as lexicography, but aims to develop principles that can improve the quality of future dictionaries, for instance in terms of access to data and lexicographic information costs. Several perspectives or branches of such academic dictionary research have been distinguished: 'dictionary criticism' (or evaluating the quality of one or more dictionaries, e.g. by means of reviews (see Nielsen 1999), 'dictionary history' (or tracing

1634-464: The terms "drug" and "medicine" are used interchangeably. Drug action is highly specific and their effects may only be detected in certain individuals. For instance, the 10 highest-grossing drugs in the US may help only 4-25% of people. Often, the activity of a drug depends on the genotype of a patient. For example, Erbitux ( cetuximab ) increases the survival rate of colorectal cancer patients if they carry

1677-402: The traditions of a type of dictionary or of lexicography in a particular country or language), 'dictionary typology' (or classifying the various genres of reference works, such as dictionary versus encyclopedia, monolingual versus bilingual dictionary, general versus technical or pedagogical dictionary), 'dictionary structure' (or formatting the various ways in which the information is presented in

1720-435: The use of different recreational drugs; medicinal drugs that have the potential for recreational use are often heavily regulated. However, there are many recreational drugs that are legal in many jurisdictions and widely culturally accepted. Cannabis is the most commonly consumed controlled recreational drug in the world (as of 2012). Its use in many countries is illegal but is legally used in several countries usually with

1763-601: The vulnerable peyote. The entheogenic use of cannabis has also been widely practised for centuries. Rastafari use marijuana (ganja) as a sacrament in their religious ceremonies . Psychedelic mushrooms ( psilocybin mushrooms ), commonly called magic mushrooms or shrooms have also long been used as entheogens. Nootropics , also commonly referred to as "smart drugs", are drugs that are claimed to improve human cognitive abilities . Nootropics are used to improve memory, concentration, thought, mood, and learning. An increasingly used nootropic among students, also known as

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1806-438: The world include caffeine , nicotine and alcohol , which are also considered recreational drugs , since they are used for pleasure rather than medicinal purposes. All drugs can have potential side effects . Abuse of several psychoactive drugs can cause addiction and/or physical dependence . Excessive use of stimulants can promote stimulant psychosis . Many recreational drugs are illicit ; international treaties such as

1849-467: The world the legal use of drugs such as khat is common. There are a number of legal intoxicants commonly called legal highs that are used recreationally. The most widely used of these is alcohol. All drugs have a route of administration , and many can be administered by more than one. A bolus is the administration of a medication, drug or other compound that is given to raise its concentration in blood rapdily to an effective level, regardless of

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