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61-623: The DJI Mini , originally marketed as the DJI Mavic Mini , is a series of teleoperated compact quadcopter drones for personal and commercial aerial photography and videography use, released by the Chinese technology company DJI . The Mini is a miniaturized version of the DJI Mavic designed to bypass drone registration requirements in most countries, with all variants weighing under 250 grams (0.55 lb) in normal configuration. DJI announced

122-447: A circular fisheye lens , the image circle is inscribed in the film or sensor area; in a diagonal ("full-frame") fisheye lens , the image circle is circumscribed around the film or sensor area. This implies that using a fisheye lens for a different format than it was intended for is easy (as opposed to a rectilinear lens), and may change its characteristic. Further, different fisheye lenses map ("distort") images differently, and

183-424: A TV-style transmission back to the operator, extending the range of the vehicle to greater than line-of-sight range. There are several particular types of systems that are often controlled remotely: Teleoperation of Autonomous Vehicles, is the ability to remotely drive or assist a self-driving car . Most leading companies in the industry believe that to bridge the gap between current self-driving capabilities and

244-520: A battery capacity of 2400 mAh, giving the drone a maximum flight time of 30 minutes. To minimize weight, the Mavic Mini does not include an obstacle avoidance system, though it does include geofencing technology and AeroScope Remote ID . A "JP version" was also built for the Japanese market, where drones weighing at least 200 g (7.1 oz) must be registered, with a lighter 1100 mAh battery reducing

305-464: A capacity of 2453 mAh, giving the drone a maximum flight time of 34 minutes. Alternatively, the drone could be fitted with a 3850 mAh Intelligent Flight Battery Plus, increasing flight time to 47 minutes at the cost of exceeding the 250 g (0.55 lb) weight limit for unregistered drones. On 9 December 2022, DJI released the Mini 3 as a cheaper version of the Mini 3 Pro. The primary differences between

366-448: A captured lens after the war showed the Pleon provided an equidistant projection to cover a field of approximately 130°, and negatives were printed using a special rectifying enlarger to eliminate distortion. The Pleon had a focal length of approximately 72.5 mm with a maximum aperture of f /8 and used a plano-concave front element 300 mm (12 in) in diameter; the image on

427-418: A circular fisheye image will be completely black. This blackness is different from the gradual vignetting of rectilinear lenses and sets on abruptly. Some circular fisheyes were available in orthographic projection models for scientific applications. These have a 180° vertical, horizontal and diagonal angle of view . For APS and m43 cameras, several lenses have emerged that retain a 180° field of view on

488-560: A cloud survey in September 1923 The lens, designed by Hill and R. & J. Beck, Ltd. , was patented in December 1923. The Hill Sky Lens is now credited as the first fisheye lens. Hill also described three different mapping functions of a lens designed to capture an entire hemisphere (stereographic, equidistant, and orthographic). Distortion is unavoidable in a lens that encompasses an angle of view exceeding 125°, but Hill and Beck claimed in

549-640: A contract to supply optics to the Imperial Japanese Navy , possibly gained access to the AEG design under the Pact of Steel . Also in 1938, Robert Richter of Carl Zeiss AG patented the 6-element, 5-group Pleon lens, which was used for aerial surveillance during World War II. The converging rear group of the Pleon was symmetrical, derived from the 4-element Topogon lens designed by Richter for Zeiss in 1933. Testing on

610-508: A crop body. The first of these was the Sigma 4.5   mm. Sunex also makes a 5.6   mm fisheye lens that captures a circular 185° field of view on a 1.5x Nikon and 1.6x Canon DSLR cameras. Nikon produced a 6 mm circular fisheye lens for 35 mm film that was initially designed for an expedition to Antarctica . It featured a 220° field of view, designed to capture the entire sky and surrounding ground when pointed straight up. This lens

671-455: A diagonal and a circular fisheye consists of a circular image optimised for the width of the film format rather than the height . As a result, on any non-square film format, the circular image will be cropped at the top and bottom, but still show black edges on the left and right. This format is called a "portrait" fisheye; historically, it has been rather rare – only the 12 mm f /8 Accura lens (see list below) directly follows

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732-723: A feature normally seen in large long-focus or telephoto lenses to reduce strain on the lens mount . The lens is extremely rare. More recently, the Japanese manufacturer Entaniya offers several fisheye lenses with angles of view up to 250° on 35 mm full frame, and up to 280° on smaller sensors (see list below). In 2018, Venus Optics introduced a 210° fisheye lens for the Micro Four Thirds system. The 8 mm and 7.5 mm circular fisheye lenses made by Nikon have proven useful for scientific purposes because of their equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along

793-444: A fisheye lens, or created via computer-generated graphics, onto hemispherical screens. They are also used for scientific photography , such as recordings of aurora and meteors , and to study plant canopy geometry, and to calculate near-ground solar radiation . In everyday life, they are perhaps most commonly encountered as peephole door viewers to give a wide field of view. Panoramas with fisheye distortion predate photography and

854-508: A pair separated by 500 metres (1,600 ft) for stereo imaging , and equipped with a red filter for contrast; in its original form, the lens had a focal length of 0.84 in (21 mm) and cast an image 2.5 in (64 mm) in diameter at f /8 . Conrad Beck described the camera system in an article published in 1925. At least one has been reconstructed. In 1932, the German firm Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft AG (AEG) filed for

915-524: A patent on the Weitwinkelobjektiv (wide-angle lens), a 5-element, 4-group development of the Hill Sky Lens . Compared to the 1923 Hill Sky Lens , the 1932 Weitwinkelobjektiv featured two diverging meniscus elements ahead of the stop and used a cemented achromatic group in the converging section. Miyamoto credits Hans Schulz with the design of the Weitwinkelobjektiv . The basic patented design

976-518: A photograph of pole vaulter Bob Gutowski taken by Ralph Crane, published in July 1957. The Nikon Fisheye Camera was discontinued in September 1961, and Nikon subsequently introduced the first regular production fisheye lens for 35 mm cameras in 1962, the Fisheye-Nikkor 8 mm f /8 , which required the reflex mirror on its Nikon F and Nikkormat cameras to be locked up prior to mounting

1037-456: A photographic plate. In the text, he described a third "Fish-Eye" camera built using sheet brass, the primary advantages being that this one was more portable than the other two cameras, and was "absolutely leaktight". In his conclusion, Wood thought that "the device will photograph the entire sky [so] a sunshine recorder could be made on this principle, which would require no adjustment for latitude or month" but also wryly noted "the views used for

1098-450: A smaller battery capacity of 2250 mAh, but still has a maximum flight time of 30 minutes. The Mini SE retains the 12MP 1/2.3" CMOS camera and Enhanced Wi-Fi transmission system of the Mavic Mini. The successor to the Mavic Mini was released November 2020 as the Mini 2, dropping the Mavic name. Compared to the Mavic Mini, the Mini 2 has a reduced battery capacity of 2250 mAh, though flight time

1159-402: A special mapping ("distortion"; for example: equisolid angle , see below), which gives images a characteristic convex non-rectilinear appearance. The term fisheye was coined in 1906 by American physicist and inventor Robert W. Wood based on how a fish would see an ultrawide hemispherical view from beneath the water (a phenomenon known as Snell's window ). Their first practical use was in

1220-600: A spectrum of autonomy ranging from manual control to full autopilot for autonomous vehicles . The term teleoperation is in use in research and technical communities as a standard term for referring to operation at a distance. This is as opposed to telepresence which is a less standard term and might refer to a whole range of existence or interaction that include a remote connotation. The 19th century saw many inventors working on remotely operated weapons ( torpedoes ) including prototypes built by John Louis Lay (1872), John Ericsson (1873), Victor von Scheliha (1873), and

1281-568: A successor to the Mini SE. The Mini 2 SE differs from the Mini 2 in that it has a maximum resolution of 2.7K, and is slightly lighter at 246 g (0.542 lb). Although it did not initially support Remote ID , a firmware update in June 2024 added support after several countries began to require it. The Mini 4K was announced in April 2024. It is nearly identical to the Mini 2 SE, differing in that it re-added

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1342-438: Is no longer manufactured, and is used nowadays to produce interactive virtual-reality images such as QuickTime VR and IPIX . Because of its very wide field of view, it is very large — weighing 5.2 kilograms (11 lb), having a diameter of 236 millimetres (9.3 in), a length of 171 millimetres (6.7 in) and an angle of view of 220 degrees. It dwarfs a regular 35 mm SLR camera and has its own tripod mounting point,

1403-431: Is placed in the image by the lens according to the mapping function of the lens. The mapping function gives r , the position of the object from the center of the image, as a function of f , the focal length, and θ , the angle from the optical axis, in radians . Other mapping functions (for example Panomorph Lenses) are also possible for enhancing the off-axis resolution of fisheye lenses. With appropriate software,

1464-621: The Sphaerogon were constructed for the Contax I miniature format camera. The first prototype Sphaerogon lenses constructed had a maximum aperture of f /8 , but later examples were computed half a stop faster, to f /6.8 . Several prototype examples of Sphaerogon lenses were recovered as part of the Zeiss Lens Collection seized by the Army Signal Corps as war reparations in 1945;

1525-467: The 1920s for use in meteorology to study cloud formation giving them the name whole-sky lenses . The angle of view of a fisheye lens is usually between 100 and 180 degrees, although lenses covering up to 280 degrees exist (see below). Their focal lengths depend on the film format they are designed for. Mass-produced fisheye lenses for photography first appeared in the early 1960s and are generally used for their unique, distorted appearance. For

1586-435: The 4K camera. The DJI Mini 3 Pro was made available on 10 May 2022. Unlike previous Mini variants, the Mini 3 Pro has a full 3-axis obstacle avoidance system. The Mini 3 Pro features a new 48MP 1/1.3" CMOS camera capable of capturing 4K video at up to 60FPS and is equipped with an with O3 transmission system, allowing transmission of live 1080p video at 30 frames per second (FPS). The standard Intelligent Flight Battery has

1647-463: The Japanese government, followed by a commercial release as the Nikon Fisheye Camera (also known as the "Nikon Sky Camera" or "Nikon Cloud Camera") in September 1960, which had a retail price of ¥200,000 (equivalent to ¥1,130,000 in 2019). The revised lens created a circular image 50 mm (2.0 in) in diameter and covered a complete hemispherical field of 180°. Only 30 examples of

1708-468: The Mavic Mini on 30 October 2019 as a replacement for the DJI Spark as DJI's beginner camera drone, with sales commencing on 11 November. A miniaturized derivative of the DJI Mavic , the Mavic Mini was designed to bypass drone registration requirements in most countries, with the "general version" weighing only 249 g (0.549 lb). It has a 12MP 1/2.3" CMOS camera capable of 2.7K video at 30 FPS and

1769-612: The Mini 3 and Mini 3 Pro include the removal of the obstacle avoidance sensors and limited intelligent camera modes. The transmission system was also downgraded to OcuSync 2.0 instead of the O3 used in the DJI Mini 3 Pro. Total weight was slightly reduced to 248 g (0.547 lb) with the Intelligent Flight Battery, while maximum flight time was increased to 38 minutes (51 minutes with Intelligent Flight Battery Plus). The Mini 4 Pro

1830-681: The Nikon Fisheye Camera were manufactured, and of those, 18 were sold to customers, mainly in the United States; Nikon likely destroyed the remaining stock to avoid tax penalties. Photographs taken with the Fisheye Camera that were published in Life in 1957 marked the first wide exposure of the public to fisheye distortion; including a photograph of the United States Senate caucus room, taken by Ed Clark and published in an April 1957 issue, and

1891-488: The active area of the image sensor, the same lens can form a circular image on a larger image sensor (e.g. 1 ⁄ 2 "), and a full frame on a smaller one (e.g. 1 ⁄ 4 "). For a comprehensive list of all current and all past fisheye lenses, see External Links below. The APS-C image sensor used in Canon cameras is 22.3 mm × 14.9 mm (0.88 in × 0.59 in), or 26.82 mm (1.056 in) on

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1952-438: The added capability to capture slow motion 4K video at 100FPS. The gimbal can also rotate 90 degrees to shoot vertical video. Data from DJI Mini 4 Pro user manual General characteristics Performance Avionics Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Teleoperation Teleoperation can be considered a human-machine system . For example, ArduPilot provides

2013-535: The collection, which the Zeiss firm had retained as a record of their designs, was later documented by Merté, the former head of optical computation for CZJ, working under Signal Corps officer Edward Kaprelian. After the war, the Fisheye-Nikkor lens was mated to a medium format camera and was produced in slightly modified form (focal length increased slightly to 16.3 mm) as the "Sky-image Recording Camera" in March 1957 for

2074-577: The diagonal of the film frame. The first such diagonal fisheye was the Fish-eye Takumar 18 mm f /11 , released by Pentax (Asahi Optical) in 1962, followed by the slightly faster UW Rokkor-PG 18 mm f /9.5 from Minolta in 1966. Both of these were reflex-viewing and fixed-focus. Both Pentax and Minolta followed up with faster lenses with variable focus in 1967 ( Super Fish-eye-Takumar 17 mm f /4 ) and 1969 ( Rokkor-OK 16 mm f /2.8 ), respectively. The 16 mm Rokkor

2135-418: The diagonal, which is slightly smaller than the sensor size used by other popular manufacturers of cameras with APS-C sensors, such as Fuji, Minolta, Nikon, Pentax, and Sony. The other common APS-C sensors range from 23.6 to 23.7 mm (0.93 to 0.93 in) on the long dimension and 15.6 mm (0.61 in) on the shorter side, for a diagonal between 28.2 to 28.4 mm (1.11 to 1.12 in). The subject

2196-460: The distinctive distortion grew in popularity, especially for album covers . For example, British fashion photographer Tim Walker used a fisheye lens to capture the cover of Harry Styles ' 2019 pop/rock album, Fine Line . Other genres that have taken advantage of the fisheye lens look include punk rock, hip-hop, and skateboarding videos. In particular, the fisheye lens became a signature style of music video director Hype Williams , especially in

2257-492: The first diagonal fisheye lenses to be mass-produced was the Nikon Fisheye-Nikkor F 16mm f /3.5 , made in the early 1970s. To obtain the same effect on digital cameras with smaller sensors, shorter focal lengths are required. Nikon makes a 10.5 mm fisheye for their APS DX SLRs. Several other companies make "full frame", i.e. diagonal, fisheyes for APS and m43 cameras, see next paragraph. An intermediate between

2318-503: The first practical wire guided torpedo, the Brennan torpedo , patented by Louis Brennan in 1877. In 1898, Nikola Tesla demonstrated a remotely controlled boat with a patented wireless radio guidance system that he tried to market to the United States military, but was turned down. Teleoperation is now moving into the hobby industry with first-person view (FPV) equipment. FPV equipment mounted on hobby cars, planes and helicopters give

2379-455: The fisheye lens. In 1779, Horace Bénédict de Saussure published his downward-facing fisheye view of the Alps: "All the objects are drawn in perspective from the centre". In 1906, Wood published a paper detailing an experiment in which he built a camera in a water-filled pail starting with a photographic plate at the bottom, a short focus lens with a pinhole diaphragm located approximately halfway up

2440-417: The illustration of this paper savour somewhat of the 'freak' pictures of the magazines." W.N. Bond described an improvement to Wood's apparatus in 1922 which replaced the tank of water with a simple hemispheric glass lens, making the camera significantly more portable. The focal length depended on the refractive index and radius of the hemispherical lens, and the maximum aperture was approximately f /50 ; it

2501-494: The lens. Prior to the early 1960s, fisheye lenses were used primarily by professional and scientific photographers, but the advent of the fisheye for the 35 mm format increased its popular use. The Fisheye-Nikkor 8 mm f /8 has a field of view of 180° and uses 9 elements in 5 groups; it has a fixed focus and built-in filters intended for black-and-white photography. Research indicates that fewer than 1,400 lenses were built. As fisheye lenses became more widely available,

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2562-425: The manner of distortion is referred to as their mapping function . A common type for consumer use is equi solid angle . Although there are digital fisheye effects available both in-camera and as computer software, neither can extend the angle of view of the original images to the very large one of a true fisheye lens. The focal length is determined by the angular coverage, the specific mapping function used, and

2623-457: The mid-to-late 1990s when he directed videos for artists such as Busta Rhymes , Missy Elliott , and Puff Daddy . Nikon subsequently released several more milestone circular fisheye lenses in Nikon F mount through the 1960s and 70s: Contemporaneously, other Japanese manufacturers were developing the so-called "full-frame" or diagonal fisheyes, which captured approximately a 180° field of view across

2684-424: The negative was approximately 85 mm (3.3 in) in diameter. At approximately the same time that Schulz was developing the Weitwinkelobjektiv at AEG, Willy Merté  [ de ] at Zeiss was developing the Sphaerogon , which was also designed to encompass a 180° field of view. Unlike the Weitwinkelobjektiv , Merté's Sphaerogon was not limited to medium format cameras; prototype versions of

2745-424: The pail, and a sheet of glass at the rim to suppress ripples in the water. The experiment was Wood's attempt "to ascertain how the external world appears to the fish" and hence the title of the paper was "Fish-Eye Views, and Vision under Water". Wood subsequently built an improved "horizontal" version of the camera omitting the lens, instead using a pinhole pierced in the side of a tank, which was filled with water and

2806-399: The patent that stereographic or equidistant projection were the preferred mapping functions. The three-element, three-group lens design uses a highly divergent meniscus lens as the first element to bring in light over a wide view followed by a converging lens system to project the view onto a flat photographic plate. The Hill Sky Lens was fitted to a whole sky camera , typically used in

2867-482: The popular 35   mm film format, typical focal lengths of fisheye lenses are 8–10 mm for circular images, and 12–18 mm for diagonal images filling the entire frame. For digital cameras using smaller imagers such as 1/4 in and 1/3 in format CCD or CMOS sensors, the focal length of "miniature" fisheye lenses can be as short as 1–2 mm . Fisheye lenses also have other applications, such as re-projecting images originally filmed through

2928-632: The portrait principle. Today however, a portrait fisheye effect is easily achieved by using a fisheye lens intended for full coverage of a smaller sensor format, like an APS diagonal fisheye on a 35 mm full frame camera, or an m43 diagonal fisheye on APS. Miniature digital cameras , especially when used as security cameras , often tend to have fisheye lenses to maximize coverage. Miniature fisheye lenses are designed for small-format CCD/CMOS imagers commonly used in consumer and security cameras. Popular image sensor format sizes used include 1 ⁄ 4 ", 1 ⁄ 3 ", and 1 ⁄ 2 ". Depending on

2989-467: The radius of the circular image is proportional to the zenith angle . As fisheye lenses gained popularity in general photography, camera companies began manufacturing fisheye lenses with an enlarged image circle to cover the entire rectangular film frame. They are called diagonal, or sometimes "rectangular" or "full-frame", fisheyes. (This was well before digital photography, so the use of the term "full frame" with respect to fisheyes has nothing to do with

3050-433: The remote operator performs the dynamic drive task, i.e. drives the car remotely, controlling the car's steering , acceleration and braking systems . Remote Assistance, also called “High Level Commands” – remote operators supervise the vehicle, and provide instructions, approve or correct the vehicle path, without actually performing the dynamic driving task. Some companies deploy a combination of both concepts, depending on

3111-405: The required dimensions of the final image. Focal lengths for popular amateur camera sizes are computed as: The first types of fisheye lenses developed were "circular" — lenses which took in a 180° hemisphere and projected it as a circle within the film frame. By design, circular fisheye lenses thus cover a smaller image circle than rectilinear lenses designed for the same sensor size. The corners of

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3172-435: The requirements needed for widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles, there is a need to have Teleoperation capabilities for assisting self-driving cars , in situations of ‘edge cases’ – where the autonomous vehicle software stack has low confidence level in its ability to perform the correct action, or when the vehicle needs to operate outside of its standard operating parameters. Without remote assistance, in such situations

3233-746: The self-driving car would transition to a Minimum Risk Maneuverer (MRM) which is usually to stop. Many AV companies plan on using teleoperations as part of their rollout for self driving cars. Examples of companies that have stated they will deploy, or currently deploying teleoperations solutions include Voyage.auto, Denso , Waymo , GM Cruise , Aptiv , Zoox . Teleoperation of Autonomous Vehicles includes privately owned self driving car use cases, such as self parking assistants, shared mobility use cases, e.g. in robotaxis and autonomous shuttles and industrial use cases, for example autonomous forklifts. There are two main modes for Teleoperation of Autonomous Vehicles: Remote Driving, also called “Direct Driving” – where

3294-412: The total weight to 199 g (0.439 lb) and flight time to 18 minutes. The Maciv Mini uses an Enhanced Wi-Fi transmission system, giving it a range of 4 km (2.5 mi). The Mini SE (the Mavic branding was dropped with the Mini 2) was released mid-2021, being basically the original Mavic Mini built in the Mini 2 shell. Compared to the Mavic Mini, the Mini SE has improved wind resistance and

3355-573: The use case. Examples of companies that provide solutions in the field of Teleoperations are DriveU.auto, Roboauto, Scotti.ai, Phantom.Auto, Pylot, Ottopia, Designated Driver and Soliton Systems. Fisheye lens A fisheye lens is an ultra wide-angle lens that produces strong visual distortion intended to create a wide panoramic or hemispherical image. Fisheye lenses achieve extremely wide angles of view , well beyond any rectilinear lens. Instead of producing images with straight lines of perspective ( rectilinear images ), fisheye lenses use

3416-418: The use of the term to designate a digital sensor measuring 36x24 mm). The angle of view produced by diagonal fisheyes only measures 180° from corner to corner : they have a 180° diagonal angle of view (AOV) , while the horizontal and vertical angles of view will be smaller. For an equisolid angle 15 mm full-frame fisheye, the horizontal AOV will be 147°, and the vertical AOV will be 94°. One of

3477-595: Was later adopted by Leica as the Fisheye-Elmarit-R (1974) for its SLRs and then converted to autofocus (1986) for the Alpha system . As of 2018 , the same basic optical design is still sold as the Sony SAL16F28. Unlike rectilinear lenses, fisheye lenses are not fully characterised by focal length and aperture alone. Angle of view, image diameter, projection type, and sensor coverage all vary independently of these. In

3538-459: Was not corrected for chromatic aberration and projected a curved field onto a flat plate. Bond noted the new lens could be used to record cloud cover or lightning strikes at a given location. Bond's hemispheric lens also reduced the need for a pinhole aperture to ensure sharp focus, so exposure times were also reduced. In 1924, Robin Hill first described a lens with 180° coverage that had been used for

3599-402: Was produced for cloud recording as a 17 mm f /6.3 lens, and Umbo used the AEG lens for artistic purposes, with photographs published in a 1937 issue of Volk und Welt . The AEG Weitwinkelobjektiv formed the basis of the later Nippon Kogaku (Nikon) Fisheye-Nikkor 16 mm f /8 lens of 1938, which was used for military and scientific (cloud cover) purposes. Nikon, which had

3660-481: Was released on 25 September 2023. The Mini 4 Pro introduced the Omnidirectional Vision Sensing collision avoidance system, which uses four fisheye and two downward binocular vision sensors and a time-of-flight sensor . The drone also features an O4 transmission system transmitting 1080p footage up to 20 km away. The Mini 4 Pro's camera is an improved version of the one found on the Mini 3 Pro, with

3721-457: Was slightly increased to 31 minutes. The camera was improved with the ability to record 4K footage , and wind resistance was increased to 24 mph (39 km/h); up from the Mavic Mini's 18 mph (29 km/h). The Enhanced Wi-Fi transmission system of the Mavic Mini was replaced with OcuSync 2.0, giving it a max transmission range of 10 km . DJI released the Mini 2 SE in February 2023 as

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