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65-422: The top seven suppliers worldwide together had an annual capacity in 2001 of 179 kilotonnes (395 million pounds). DCPD was discovered in 1885 as a C 10 H 12 hydrocarbon among the products of pyrolysis of phenol by Henry Roscoe , who didn't identify the structure (that was made during the following decade) but accurately assumed that it was a dimer of some C 5 H 6 hydrocarbon. For many years

130-561: A Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered

195-570: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,

260-914: A different classification that focuses on the pyrolysis operating conditions and heating system used, which have an impact on the yield of the pyrolysis products. Vapor residence time: 10-100 min Heating rate: 0.1-1 °C/s Feedstock size: 5-50 mm Biochar~35 Gases~35 Vapor residence time: 0.5-20 s Heating rate: 1.0-10 °C/s Feedstock size: 1-5 mm Biochar~25 Gases~35 Vapor residence time: 0.5-5 s Heating rate: 10-200 °C/s Feedstock size: <3 mm Biochar~20 Gases~30 Vapor residence time: <5 s Heating rate: >1000 °C/s Feedstock size: <0.2 mm Biochar~12 Gases~13 Vapor residence time: >15 s Heating rate: 10-300 °C/s Vapor residence time: 10-100 min Heating rate: 0.1-1 °C/s Biochar~22 Gases~45 Pyrolysis has been used for turning wood into charcoal since ancient times. The ancient Egyptians used

325-508: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on

390-407: A high percentage of heavy tar fractions, which condense at relatively high temperatures, preventing its direct use in gas burners and internal combustion engines, unlike syngas. The process is used heavily in the chemical industry , for example, to produce ethylene , many forms of carbon , and other chemicals from petroleum, coal, and even wood, or to produce coke from coal . It is used also in

455-550: A homopolymer polydicyclopentadiene is formed. Hydroformylation of DCP gives the dialdehyde called TCD dialdehyde (TCD = tricyclodecane ). This dialdehyde can be oxidized to the dicarboxylic acid and to a diol . All of these derivatives have some use in polymer science. Hydrogenation of dicyclopentadiene gives tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene ( C 10 H 16 ), which is a component of jet fuel JP-10 , and rearranges to adamantane with aluminium chloride or acid at elevated temperature. Pyrolysis Pyrolysis

520-573: A lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and

585-400: A limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by

650-453: A mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes ,

715-459: A retro- Diels–Alder reaction at an appreciable rate to yield cyclopentadiene . The reaction is reversible and at room temperature cyclopentadiene dimerizes over the course of hours to re-form dicyclopentadiene. Cyclopentadiene is a useful diene in Diels–Alder reactions as well as a precursor to metallocenes in organometallic chemistry . It is not available commercially as the monomer, due to

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780-456: A state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in the early 19th century that

845-497: Is not needed. In the mid-20th century, "smokeless" legislation in Europe required cleaner-burning techniques, such as coke fuel and smoke-burning incinerators as an effective measure to reduce air pollution The coke-making or "coking" process consists of heating the material in "coking ovens" to very high temperatures (up to 900 °C or 1,700 °F) so that the molecules are broken down into lighter volatile substances, which leave

910-454: Is one of the processes involved in charring of the wood or pyrolysis of biomass. In general, pyrolysis of organic substances produces volatile products and leaves char , a carbon-rich solid residue. Extreme pyrolysis, which leaves mostly carbon as the residue, is called carbonization . Pyrolysis is considered one of the steps in the processes of gasification or combustion. Laypeople often confuse pyrolysis gas with syngas. Pyrolysis gas has

975-758: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,

1040-412: Is the process of thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures, often in an inert atmosphere without access to oxygen. The word pyrolysis is coined from the Greek -derived elements pyro- (from Ancient Greek πῦρ : pûr - "fire, heat, fever") and lysis (λύσις : lúsis - "separation, loosening"). Pyrolysis is most commonly used in the treatment of organic materials. It

1105-611: Is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near the Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in

1170-485: Is used as an adsorbent for a wide range of chemical substances. Biochar is the residue of incomplete organic pyrolysis, e.g., from cooking fires. It is a key component of the terra preta soils associated with ancient indigenous communities of the Amazon basin . Terra preta is much sought by local farmers for its superior fertility and capacity to promote and retain an enhanced suite of beneficial microbiota, compared to

1235-425: Is used to produce many kinds of carbon; these can be used for fuel, as reagents in steelmaking (coke), and as structural materials. Charcoal is a less smoky fuel than pyrolyzed wood. Some cities ban, or used to ban, wood fires; when residents only use charcoal (and similarly treated rock coal, called coke ) air pollution is significantly reduced. In cities where people do not generally cook or heat with fires, this

1300-544: The British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in

1365-637: The European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek

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1430-510: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as

1495-747: The United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to

1560-468: The genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in

1625-417: The syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However,

1690-566: The 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as

1755-538: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit

1820-540: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in

1885-583: The Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek

1950-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),

2015-474: The arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from

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2080-422: The boiling point of water or other solvents). It differs from other processes like combustion and hydrolysis in that it usually does not involve the addition of other reagents such as oxygen (O 2 , in combustion) or water (in hydrolysis). Pyrolysis produces solids ( char ), condensable liquids, (light and heavy oils and tar ), and non-condensable gasses. Pyrolysis is different from gasification . In

2145-455: The burning of firewood , in the traditional manufacture of charcoal , and in the steam cracking of crude oil. Conversely, the starting material may be heated in a vacuum or in an inert atmosphere to avoid chemical side reactions (such as combustion or hydrolysis). Pyrolysis in a vacuum also lowers the boiling point of the byproducts, improving their recovery. When organic matter is heated at increasing temperatures in open containers,

2210-476: The chemical process industry, pyrolysis refers to a partial thermal degradation of carbonaceous materials that takes place in an inert (oxygen free) atmosphere and produces both gases, liquids and solids. The pyrolysis can be extended to full gasification that produces mainly gaseous output, often with the addition of e.g. water steam to gasify residual carbonic solids, see Steam reforming . Specific types of pyrolysis include: Other pyrolysis types come from

2275-432: The conversion of natural gas (primarily methane ) into hydrogen gas and solid carbon char, recently introduced on an industrial scale. Aspirational applications of pyrolysis would convert biomass into syngas and biochar , waste plastics back into usable oil, or waste into safely disposable substances. Pyrolysis is one of the various types of chemical degradation processes that occur at higher temperatures (above

2340-765: The country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine ,

2405-441: The dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before

2470-528: The earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of

2535-412: The extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English

2600-546: The following processes generally occur, in successive or overlapping stages: Because pyrolysis takes place at high temperatures which exceed the autoignition temperature of the produced gases, an explosion risk exists if oxygen is present. To control the temperature of pyrolysis systems careful temperature control is needed and can be accomplished with an open source pyrolysis controller. Pyrolysis also produces various toxic gases, mainly carbon monoxide . The greatest risk of fire, explosion and release of toxic gases comes when

2665-488: The kinetically favored product (about 150:1 endo : exo at 80 °C). However, prolonged heating results in isomerization to the exo isomer. The pure exo isomer was first prepared by base-mediated elimination of hydroiodo- exo -dicyclopentadiene. Thermodynamically, the exo isomer is about 0.7 kcal/mol more stable than the endo isomer. The exo isomer also has a lower reported melting point of 19°C. Both isomers are chiral. Above 150 °C, dicyclopentadiene undergoes

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2730-449: The language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows

2795-463: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write

2860-475: The liquid fraction obtained from the pyrolysis of cedar wood, in their embalming process. The dry distillation of wood remained the major source of methanol into the early 20th century. Pyrolysis was instrumental in the discovery of many chemical substances, such as phosphorus from ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate NH 4 NaHPO 4 in concentrated urine , oxygen from mercuric oxide , and various nitrates . Pyrolysis generally consists in heating

2925-448: The many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is

2990-482: The material above its decomposition temperature , breaking chemical bonds in its molecules. The fragments usually become smaller molecules, but may combine to produce residues with larger molecular mass, even amorphous covalent solids . In many settings, some amounts of oxygen, water, or other substances may be present, so that combustion, hydrolysis, or other chemical processes may occur besides pyrolysis proper. Sometimes those chemicals are added intentionally, as in

3055-465: The morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of

3120-510: The rapid formation of dicyclopentadiene; hence, it must be prepared by "cracking" the dicyclopentadiene (heating the dimer and isolating the monomer by distillation) shortly before it is needed. The thermodynamic parameters of this process have been measured. At temperatures above about 125 °C in the vapor phase, dissociation to cyclopentadiene monomer starts to become thermodynamically favored (the dissociation constant K d = [cyclopentadiene] / [dicyclopentadiene] > 1 ). For instance,

3185-622: The regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of

3250-407: The solid residue left from petroleum refining. The original vascular structure of the wood and the pores created by escaping gases combine to produce a light and porous material. By starting with a dense wood-like material, such as nutshells or peach stones , one obtains a form of charcoal with particularly fine pores (and hence a much larger pore surface area), called activated carbon , which

3315-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of

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3380-404: The structure of dicyclopentadiene was thought to feature a cyclobutane ring as the fusion between the two subunits. Through the efforts of Alder and coworker, the structure was deduced in 1931. The spontaneous dimerization of neat cyclopentadiene at room temperature to form dicyclopentadiene proceeds to around 50% conversion over 24 hours and yields the endo isomer in better than 99:1 ratio as

3445-448: The sugars have been produced by the breakdown of polysaccharides ). The food goes brown and changes flavor. The distinctive flavors are used in many dishes; for instance, caramelized onion is used in French onion soup . The temperatures needed for caramelization lie above the boiling point of water. Frying oil can easily rise above the boiling point. Putting a lid on the frying pan keeps

3510-442: The system is starting up and shutting down, operating intermittently, or during operational upsets. Inert gas purging is essential to manage inherent explosion risks. The procedure is not trivial and failure to keep oxygen out has led to accidents. Conversion of CBD to THC can be brought about by pyrolysis. Pyrolysis has many applications in food preparation. Caramelization is the pyrolysis of sugars in food (often after

3575-453: The typical red soil of the region. Efforts are underway to recreate these soils through biochar , the solid residue of pyrolysis of various materials, mostly organic waste. Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized :  Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized :  Hellēnikḗ ) is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within

3640-686: The values of K d at 149 °C and 195 °C were found to be 277 and 2200, respectively. By extrapolation, K d is on the order of 10 at 25 °C, and dissociation is disfavored. In accord with the negative values of Δ H ° and Δ S ° for the Diels–Alder reaction, dissociation of dicyclopentadiene is more thermodynamically favorable at high temperatures. Equilibrium constant measurements imply that Δ H ° = –18 kcal/mol and Δ S ° = –40 eu for cyclopentadiene dimerization. Dicyclopentadiene polymerizes . Copolymers are formed with ethylene or styrene . The " norbornene double bond" participates. Using ring-opening metathesis polymerization

3705-517: The vessel, and a porous but hard residue that is mostly carbon and inorganic ash. The amount of volatiles varies with the source material, but is typically 25–30% of it by weight. High temperature pyrolysis is used on an industrial scale to convert coal into coke . This is useful in metallurgy , where the higher temperatures are necessary for many processes, such as steelmaking . Volatile by-products of this process are also often useful, including benzene and pyridine . Coke can also be produced from

3770-427: The water in, and some of it re-condenses, keeping the temperature too cool to brown for longer time. Pyrolysis of food can also be undesirable, as in the charring of burnt food (at temperatures too low for the oxidative combustion of carbon to produce flames and burn the food to ash ). Carbon and carbon-rich materials have desirable properties but are nonvolatile, even at high temperatures. Consequently, pyrolysis

3835-568: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or

3900-546: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe

3965-541: Was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and

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4030-480: Was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with the epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in

4095-566: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect

4160-637: Was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to

4225-653: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage

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