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118-528: In the Tao Te Ching , the semi-legendary ancient philosopher Laozi explains that the Tao is not a name for a thing, but the underlying natural order of the universe whose ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe because it is non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness. The Tao is "eternally nameless" and should be distinguished from the countless named things that are considered to be its manifestations,

236-599: A "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point. Wu wei , literally 'non-action' or 'not acting', is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching . The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in

354-472: A broader, more naturalistic, more metaphysical view on the relationship between humankind and the Universe and considered social rules to be at best a derivative reflection of the natural and spontaneous interactions between people and at worst calcified structure that inhibited naturalness and created conflict. This led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists and Confucians. Several sections of

472-468: A bull, a tiger, and a dragon , was allowed to go to an afterlife that was known as "the place beyond the Tao". This shows that some Chinese folk storytelling and mythological traditions had very differing interpretations of the Tao between each other and orthodox religious practices. Noted Christian author C.S. Lewis used the word Tao to describe "the doctrine of objective value, the belief that certain attitudes are really true, and others really false,

590-606: A course (of food); a streak (of light); etc.) ◆V. [ verb ] ① say; speak; talk (introducing direct quote, novel style) ... ② think; suppose ◆B.F. [bound form, bound morpheme ] ① channel ② way; reason; principle ③ doctrine ④ Daoism ⑤ line ⑥〈hist.〉 [history] ⑦ district; circuit canal; passage; tube ⑧ say (polite words) ... See also dǎo , dāo dǎo 导/道[導/- B.F. [bound form] ① guide; lead ... ② transmit; conduct ... ③ instruct; direct ... Tao Te Ching The Tao Te Ching ( traditional Chinese : 道德經 ; simplified Chinese : 道德经 ) or Laozi

708-403: A distinct entity. As part of this process, many Chinese words introduced their rich semantic and philosophical associations into Buddhism, including the use of "Tao" for central concepts and tenets of Buddhism. Pai-chang Huai-hai told a student who was grappling with difficult portions of suttas , "Take up words in order to manifest meaning and you'll obtain 'meaning'. Cut off words and meaning

826-580: A foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully as possible into English. Some of the more popular translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an individual author's interpretation. Critics of these versions claim that their translators deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought. Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies and represent

944-427: A life energy instead of qi in some Taoist belief systems. De ( 德 ; 'power', 'virtue', 'integrity') is the term generally used to refer to proper adherence to the Tao. De is the active living or cultivation of the way. Particular things (things with names) that manifest from the Tao have their own inner nature that they follow in accordance with the Tao, and the following of this inner nature

1062-399: A multitude of results. Buddhism and Confucianism particularly affected the way many sects of Taoism framed, approached, and perceived the Tao. The multitudinous branches of religious Taoism accordingly regard the Tao, and interpret writings about it, in innumerable ways. Thus, outside of a few broad similarities, it is difficult to provide an accurate yet clear summary of their interpretation of

1180-460: A political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang ('sitting in oblivion': emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the Zhuangzi . The Tao Te Ching is a text of around 5,162 to 5,450 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections ( 章 ). There

1298-402: A possessor of "power"; Therefore he keeps his "power". The man of inferior "power" cannot rid it of the appearance of "power"; Therefore he is in truth without "power". The man of highest "power" neither acts nor is there any who so regards him; The man of inferior "power" both acts and is so regarded. The man of highest humanity, though he acts, is not regarded; Whereas a man of even

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1416-536: A potency which, on the one hand, made them true to their essence, and on the other, made possible their influencing of other entities. It appears often as if it had been imagined as a kind of electric charge permeating the thing in question, waxing or waning in accordance with some mysterious law, and capable of being transmitted, in the case of living beings, from one generation to another. Contrary-minded students of ancient Chinese philosophy dispute this interpretation as rather narrow and possibly anachronistic, and point to

1534-552: A short period of time. Dhyana was translated as 禅 ; chán] , and later as "zen", giving Zen Buddhism its name. The use of Chinese concepts, such as the Tao, that were close to Buddhist ideas and terms helped spread the religion and make it more amenable to the Chinese people. However, the differences between the Sanskrit and Chinese terminology led to some initial misunderstandings and the eventual development of Buddhism in East Asia as

1652-639: A store; This "laying up a store" means quickly absorbing, And "quickly absorbing" means doubling one's garnered "power". Double your garnered power and it acquires a strength that nothing can overcome. If there is nothing it cannot overcome, it know no bounds, And only what knows no bounds is huge enough to keep a whole kingdom in its grasp. Compare this description of using one's accumulated de to affect others: The best charioteers do not rush ahead; The best fighters do not make displays of wrath. The greatest conqueror wins without joining issue; The best user of men acts as though he were their inferior. This

1770-532: A wide range of versions dating back a century or two. Benjamin I. Schwartz still considered it remarkably unified by the time of the Mawangdui silk texts , even if these versions swap the two halves of the text. Linguistic studies of the Tao Te Ching ' s vocabulary and rime scheme point to a date of composition after the Classic of Poetry , but before the Zhuangzi , and would generally be taken as preceding

1888-550: Is De . Wu wei , or 'naturalness', is contingent on understanding and conforming to this inner nature, which is interpreted variously from a personal, individual nature to a more generalized notion of human nature within the greater Universe. Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists and Confucianists. Confucianism was largely a moral system emphasizing the values of humaneness, righteousness, and filial duty, and so conceived De in terms of obedience to rigorously defined and codified social rules. Taoists took

2006-439: Is "virtue," both in the sense of inherent quality and in that of moral excellence, but with the validity of the traditional rendering somewhat shaken by Arthur Waley's insistence on interpreting it as "power." Indeed, it is believed by many scholars that the term originated in the mytho-magical period of Chinese speculation when tê was conceived as a kind of mana -like potency inherent in substances, things, and human beings,

2124-434: Is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi , though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion dates to the late 4th century BC. The Tao Te Ching is central to both philosophical and religious Taoism, and has been highly influential to Chinese philosophy and religious practice in general. It

2242-425: Is a paronym of de 得 "to acquire; to obtain", which is a common definition of de "power; virtue". Lastly, he notes a possible etymology of "see straight; looking straight at things; intuition" because early zhi 直 graphs depicted a straight line over an 目 "eye" (horizontally written 罒 in 德 ). Victor H. Mair proposes a correlation between Proto-Indo-European dugh and de . Te

2360-457: Is a 'bad virtue'? Clearly 'virtue' is not a satisfactory equivalent. Indeed on examining the history of the word we find that it means something much more like the Indian karma , save that the fruits of te are generally manifested here and now; whereas karma is bound up with a theory of transmigration, and its effects are usually not seen in this life, but in a subsequent incarnation. Te

2478-493: Is a broad variety of distinct interpretations among sects and even individuals in the same sect. Despite this diversity, there are some clear, common patterns and trends in Taoism and its branches. The diversity of Taoist interpretations of the Tao can be seen across four texts representative of major streams of thought in Taoism. All four texts are used in modern Taoism with varying acceptance and emphasis among sects. The Tao Te Ching

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2596-522: Is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved." The first English translation of the Tao Te Ching was produced in 1868 by the Scottish Protestant missionary John Chalmers , entitled The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze . It was heavily indebted to Julien 's French translation and dedicated to James Legge , who later produced his own translation for Oxford's Sacred Books of

2714-528: Is a whole series of words derived from the related Teutonic verbal root dugan . There are Old High German tugan , Middle High German tugen , and modern German taugen [also see German "Tugend"(,virtue)], all of which mean "to be good, fit, of use." There is another cognate group of words relating to modern English "doughty" (meaning worthy, valiant, stouthearted) that also contribute to our understanding of te . They are Middle English douhti , dohti , of dühti ("valiant"). In modern Dutch,

2832-490: Is an ancient word with complexities across several subfields of linguistics: namely in its semantics, orthography, and etymology . The Hanyu Da Zidian , provides twenty meanings for de 德 , translatable as This dictionary provides early usage examples, and all of these de meanings occur in Han or pre-Han Chinese classic texts , except for number 17 ( de abbreviating Deutschland ). Translating de into English

2950-464: Is anything that happens to one or that one does of a kind indicating that, as a consequence, one is going to meet with good or bad luck. It means, so to speak, the stock of credit (or the deficit) that at any given moment a man has at the bank of fortune. Such a stock is of course built up partly by the correct carrying out of ritual; but primarily by securing favourable omens; for unless the omens are favourable, no rite can be carried out at all. Based on

3068-413: Is called the "mysterious power." Chapters 10 and 65 also use this xuande ( 玄德 "dark/mysterious de ") phrase. The second Daodejing theme is the efficacy of de for statesmanship (see meanings six and seven above). A sage ruler can acquire sufficient de to influence his subjects through, in effect, wu wei government. You cannot rule men nor serve heaven unless you have laid up

3186-405: Is called the power that comes of not contending, Is called the capacity to use men, The secret of being mated to heaven, to what was of old. Mair interprets these de occurrences: As it is used in the Tao Te Ching , te signifies the personal qualities or strengths of the individual, one's personhood. Te is determined by the sum total of one's actions, good and bad. Therefore it

3304-467: Is commonly used in this fashion by Chinese Buddhists, heavy with associations and nuanced meanings. During the Song dynasty , neo-Confucians regarded the Tao as the purest thing-in-itself . Shao Yong regarded the Tao as the origin of heaven, earth, and everything within them. In contrast, Zhang Zai presented a vitalistic Tao that was the fundamental component or effect of qi, the motive energy behind life and

3422-542: Is emptiness. Emptiness is the Tao. The Tao is cutting off words and speech." Zen Buddhists regard the Tao as synonymous with both the Buddhist Path and the results of it, the Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist enlightenment . Pai-chang's statement plays upon this usage in the context of the fluid and varied Chinese usage of "Tao". Words and meanings are used to refer to rituals and practices. The "emptiness" refers to

3540-451: Is free from any contamination with sexual associations and differs in that from its great counterpart, tao , the Way, which, in one or two expressions, such as jên tao 人道 , "the way of men and women," is suggestive of sexual activity. Other recommended translation, such as "energy" and "essential quality," seem also inadequate from the etymological point of view. Victor Mair explains that

3658-456: Is generally taken as preceding the Zhuangzi , the other core Taoist text, as suggested by the Zhuangzi itself. Terminology originating within the text has been reinterpreted and elaborated upon by Legalist thinkers , Confucianists , and particularly Chinese Buddhists , which had been introduced to China significantly after the initial solidification of Taoist thought. The text is well known in

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3776-489: Is highly polysemous: its historical alternate pronunciation as dǎo possessed an additional connotation of 'guide'. The history of the character includes details of orthography and semantics, as well as a possible Proto-Indo-European etymology, in addition to more recent loaning into English and other world languages. "Tao" is written with the Chinese character 道 using both traditional and simplified characters. The traditional graphical interpretation of 道 dates back to

3894-729: Is impossible to understand some passages without some transposition of characters. De (Chinese) De ( / d ə / ; Chinese : 德 ; pinyin : dé ), also written as Te , is a key concept in Chinese philosophy , usually translated "inherent character; inner power; integrity" in Taoism , "moral character; virtue; morality" in Confucianism and other contexts, and "quality; virtue" ( guṇa ) or "merit; virtuous deeds" ( puṇya ) in Chinese Buddhism . Chinese de 德

4012-411: Is laconic, and has few grammatical particles . While the ideas are singular, the style is poetic, combining two major strategies: short, declarative statements, and intentional contradictions, encouraging varied, contradictory interpretations. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces the reader to reconcile supposed contradictions. With a partial reconstruction of

4130-579: Is only extant for the Te Ching , derives from a commentary attributed to Han dynasty scholar Yan Zun ( 巖尊 , fl.  80 BC – 10 AD ). The "Heshang Gong" version is named after the legendary Heshang Gong ('legendary sage'), who supposedly lived during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han (180–157 BC). This commentary has a preface written by Ge Xuan (164–244 AD), granduncle of Ge Hong , and scholarship dates this version to c.  the 3rd century AD . The origins of

4248-417: Is possible to speak of "cultivating one's te ." Like karma , te is the moral weight of a person, which may be either positive or negative. In short, te is what you are. Te represents self-nature or self-realization, only in relation to the cosmos. It is in fact the actualization of the cosmic principle in the self. Te is the embodiment of the Way and is the character of all entities in

4366-450: Is problematic and controversial. Arthur Waley believed that de was better translated "power" than "virtue", and explained with a "bank of fortune" metaphor. It is usually translated 'virtue', and this often seems to work quite well; though where the word occurs in early, pre-moralistic texts such a translation is in reality quite false. But if we study the usage of the word carefully we find that de can be bad as well as good. What

4484-451: Is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions—for commentary, or as aids to rote memorisation—and that the original text was more fluidly organised. It has two parts, the Tao Ching ( 道經 ; chapters 1–37) and the Te Ching ( 德經 ; chapters 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original Te Tao Ching . The written style

4602-524: Is supported by textual examples of the use of the primary tao in the verbal sense "to lead" (e. g., Analects 1.5; 2.8) and seriously undermines the unspoken assumption implied in the common translation of Tao as "way" that the concept is essentially a nominal one. Tao would seem, then, to be etymologically a more dynamic concept than we have made it translation-wise. It would be more appropriately rendered by "lead way" and "lode" ("way," "course," "journey," "leading," "guidance"; cf. "lodestone" and "lodestar"),

4720-513: Is the Taoist concept of de ('virtue'). In Confucianism and religious forms of Taoism, these are often explicitly moral/ethical arguments about proper behavior, while Buddhism and more philosophical forms of Taoism usually refer to the natural and mercurial outcomes of action (comparable to karma). The Tao is intrinsically related to the concepts of yin and yang , where every action creates counter-actions as unavoidable movements within manifestations of

4838-454: Is the fundamental and central concept of these schools of thought. Taoism perceives the Tao as a natural order underlying the substance and activity of the Universe. Language and the "naming" of the Tao is regarded negatively in Taoism; the Tao fundamentally exists and operates outside the realm of differentiation and linguistic constraints. There is no single orthodox Taoist view of the Tao. All forms of Taoism center around Tao and De, but there

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4956-461: Is the oldest text and representative of a speculative and philosophical approach to the Tao. The Daotilun is an eighth century exegesis of the Tao Te Ching , written from a well-educated and religious viewpoint that represents the traditional, scholarly perspective. The devotional perspective of the Tao is expressed in the Qingjing Jing , a liturgical text that was originally composed during

5074-500: Is written in Classical Chinese , which generally poses a number of challenges for interpreters and translators. As Holmes Welch notes, the written language "has no active or passive, no singular or plural, no case, no person, no tense, no mood." Moreover, the received text lacks many grammatical particles which are preserved in the older Mawangdui and Beida texts, which permit the text to be more precise. Lastly, many passages of

5192-499: The dao and its usefulness in managing people. The first Daojing theme is the interrelationship between de and dao . "Such the scope of the All-pervading Power. That it alone can act through the Way." Chapter 38, the so-called " De Chapter", has the greatest number of occurrences. Note that de is translated as "power" in the following translations. The man of highest "power" does not reveal himself as

5310-487: The Hanyu Da Zidian dictionary defines 39 meanings for 道 ; dào and 6 for 道 ; dǎo . John DeFrancis 's Chinese-English dictionary gives twelve meanings for 道 ; dào , three for 道 ; dǎo , and one for 道 ; dāo . Note that brackets clarify abbreviations and ellipsis marks omitted usage examples. dào 道 N. [ noun ] road; path ◆M. [nominal measure word ] ① (for rivers/topics/etc.) ② (for

5428-522: The Shuowen Jiezi dictionary published in 121 CE, which describes it as a rare "compound ideogram" or " ideographic compound ". According to the Shuowen Jiezi , 道 combines the 'go' radical 辶 (a variant of 辵 ) with 首 ; 'head'. This construction signified a "head going" or "leading the way". "Tao" is graphically distinguished between its earliest nominal meaning of 'way', 'road', 'path', and

5546-511: The Han dynasty and is used as a hymnal in religious Taoism, especially among eremites . The Zhuangzi uses literary devices such as tales, allegories, and narratives to relate the Tao to the reader, illustrating a metaphorical method of viewing and expressing the Tao. The forms and variations of religious Taoism are incredibly diverse. They integrate a broad spectrum of academic, ritualistic, supernatural, devotional, literary, and folk practices with

5664-613: The Mogao Caves near Dunhuang . They included more than 50 partial and complete manuscripts. Another partial manuscript has the Xiang'er commentary, which had previously been lost. In 1973, archaeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the Mawangdui Silk Texts , in a tomb dated to 168 BC. They included two nearly complete copies of the text, referred to as Text A ( 甲 ) and Text B ( 乙 ), both of which reverse

5782-404: The Tao Te Ching and I Ching make pains to distinguish between conceptions of the Tao (sometimes referred to as "named Tao") and the Tao itself (the "unnamed Tao"), which cannot be expressed or understood in language. Liu Da asserts that the Tao is properly understood as an experiential and evolving concept and that there are not only cultural and religious differences in the interpretation of

5900-489: The Tao Te Ching are deliberately ambiguous. Since there is very little punctuation in Classical Chinese, determining the precise boundaries between words and sentences is not always trivial. Deciding where these phrasal boundaries are must be done by the interpreter. Some translators have argued that the received text is so corrupted due to its original medium being bamboo strips linked with silk threads—that it

6018-674: The Zhuangzi . Creel proposed that Shen Buhai preceded it as well. Schwartz's contemporaries discussed Shen Dao as a Daoistic predecessor. A member of the Jixia Academy , Shen Dao is listed in the Outer Zhuangzi before Laozi and Zhuangzi, and shares content the Inner Zhuangzi , which does not appear to be familiar with the Tao Te Ching . Thus, an early stratum of the Zhuangzi may still have preceded them. Chad Hansen does not consider

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6136-630: The analogy with his painting Nine Dragons . Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the cyclical continuity of the natural world and its contrast to the linear, goal-oriented actions of human beings, as well as the perception that the Tao is "the source of all being, in which life and death are the same." In all its uses, the Tao is considered to have ineffable qualities that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can, however, be known or experienced , and its principles (which can be discerned by observing nature) can be followed or practiced. Much of East Asian philosophical writing focuses on

6254-399: The 心 "heart; mind" element. The oracle script for zhi 直 "straight; vertical" ideographically depicted shu 丨 "vertical line (in a character)" above mu 目 "eye", the bronze script elaborated the line into shi 十 "ten", and the seal script separated the eye and heart with a horizontal line. Poetically this could read as a choice of "from the womb or to the tomb". As

6372-510: The 心 "heart; mind" to connote "innerness", he takes the prefix from Latin indoles "innate quality; natural disposition" to further neologize indarrect . Boodberg concludes that the noun de is best translated enrective in the passive sense of power, or arrective in the active sense of influencing others. He says the Chinese understood de as potent but not coercive, and as arrective rather than corrective. Since early texts describe de 德 as an acquired quality, he proposes it

6490-483: The 首 ; 'head' element as hair above a face. Some variants interchange the 'go' radical 辵 with 行 ; 'go', 'road', with the original bronze "crossroads" depiction written in the seal character with two 彳 and 亍 ; 'footprints'. Bronze scripts for 道 occasionally include an element of 手 ; 'hand' or 寸 ; 'thumb', 'hand', which occurs in 導 ; 'lead'. The linguist Peter A. Boodberg explained, This " tao with

6608-511: The " De Chapter": 論德 , 'About the Attributes;' of Tâo , that is. It is not easy to render teh here by any other English term than 'virtue,' and yet there would be a danger of its thus misleading us in the interpretations of the chapter. The 'virtue,' is the activity or operation of the Tâo , which is supposed to have come out of its absoluteness. Even Han Fei so defines it here, — ' Teh

6726-439: The "Wang Bi" version have greater verification than either of the above. Wang Bi (226–249 AD) was a Three Kingdoms -period philosopher and commentator on the Tao Te Ching and I Ching . Tao Te Ching scholarship has advanced from archaeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in

6844-535: The Buddhist concept of sunyata . Finding the Tao and Buddha-nature is not simply a matter of formulations, but an active response to the Four Noble Truths that cannot be fully expressed or conveyed in words and concrete associations. The use of "Tao" in this context refers to the literal "way" of Buddhism, the return to the universal source, dharma , proper meditation, and nirvana , among other associations. "Tao"

6962-619: The East . Other notable English translations of the Tao Te Ching are those produced by Chinese scholars and teachers: a 1948 translation by linguist Lin Yutang , a 1961 translation by author John Ching Hsiung Wu , a 1963 translation by sinologist Din Cheuk Lau , another 1963 translation by professor Wing-tsit Chan , and a 1972 translation by Taoist teacher Gia-Fu Feng together with his wife Jane English . Many translations are written by people with

7080-469: The Outer Zhuangzi entirely accurate chronologically, but still discusses Shen Dao as part of the theoretical framework of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism, as "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory". Discussing concepts of names and realities in its opening, Feng Youlan proposed the school of names as preceding it the Tao Te Ching , but while some may have, it does not demonstrate school of names influence

7198-565: The Principle of Heaven in Neo-Confucianism. The Way is contained within all things. Thus, the religious life is not an elite or special journey for Neo-Confucians. The normal, mundane life is the path that leads to the Absolute, because the Absolute is contained within the mundane objects and events of daily life. Yayu, the son of Zhulong who was reincarnated on Earth as a violent hybrid between

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7316-401: The Tao but personal differences that reflect the character of individual practitioners. The Tao can be roughly thought of as the "flow of the universe", or as some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the Universe balanced and ordered. It is related to qi , the essential energy of action and existence. The Tao is a non-dualistic principle—it is the greater whole from which all

7434-418: The Tao is the self grounded in its place within the natural Universe. A person dwelling within the Tao excels in themselves and their activities. However, this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects, and movements. Some Taoists believe the Tao is an entity that can "take on human form" to perform its goals. The Tao represents human harmony with

7552-409: The Tao, "Dao is not religiously available; nor is it even religiously relevant." The writings of Laozi and Zhuangzi are tinged with esoteric tones and approach humanism and naturalism as paradoxes. In contrast to the esotericism typically found in religious systems, the Tao is not transcendent to the self, nor is mystical attainment an escape from the world in philosophical Taoism. The self steeped in

7670-414: The Tao, and proper practice variously involves accepting, conforming to, or working with these natural developments. In Taoism and Confucianism, the Tao was sometimes traditionally seen as a "transcendent power that blesses" that can "express itself directly" through various ways, but most often shows itself through the speech, movement, or traditional ritual of a "prophet, priest, or king." Tao can serve as

7788-411: The Tao. A central tenet in most varieties of religious Taoism is that the Tao is ever-present, but must be manifested, cultivated, and/or perfected to be realized. It is the source of the Universe, and the seed of its primordial purity resides in all things. Breathing exercises, according to some Taoists, allowed one to absorb "parts of the universe." Incense and certain minerals were seen as representing

7906-655: The Tao. Damascene published a full commented translation of the Tao Te Ching under the title Christ the Eternal Tao . In some Chinese translations of the New Testament, the word λόγος ( logos ) is translated as 道 , in passages such as John 1:1, indicating that the translators considered the concept of Tao to be somewhat equivalent to the Hellenic concept of logos in Platonism and Christianity. The Chinese character 道

8024-450: The Way , or A Treatise on the Principle and Its Action . Ancient Chinese books were commonly referenced by the name of their real or supposed author, in this case the "Old Master", Laozi. As such, the Tao Te Ching is also sometimes referred to as the Laozi , especially in Chinese sources. The title Tao Te Ching , designating the work's status as a classic, was only first applied during

8142-456: The Way illuminates virtue, improves the people, and resides within the purest morality. During the Tang dynasty , Han Yu further formalized and defined Confucian beliefs as an apologetic response to Buddhism. He emphasized the ethics of the Way. He explicitly paired "Tao" and "De", focusing on humane nature and righteousness. He also framed and elaborated on a "tradition of the Tao" in order to reject

8260-503: The Way of Man'. Chu Tao is 'the way to be a monarch', i.e. the art of ruling. Each school of philosophy has its tao , its doctrine of the way in which life should be ordered. Finally in a particular school of philosophy whose followers came to be called Taoists, tao meant 'the way the universe works'; and ultimately something very like God, in the more abstract and philosophical sense of that term. "Tao" gives Taoism its name in English, in both its philosophical and religious forms. The Tao

8378-416: The Way. Cheng Yi followed this interpretation, elaborating on this perspective of the Tao through teachings about interactions between yin and yang, the cultivation and preservation of life, and the axiom of a morally just universe. On the whole, the Tao is equated with totality. Wang Fuzhi expressed the Tao as the taiji , or 'great ultimate', as well as the road leading to it. Nothing exists apart from

8496-607: The West, and is one of the most translated texts in world literature. In English, the title is commonly rendered Tao Te Ching , following the Wade–Giles romanisation, or as Daodejing , following pinyin . It can be translated as The Classic of the Way and its Power , The Book of the Tao and Its Virtue , The Book of the Way and of Virtue , The Tao and its Characteristics , The Canon of Reason and Virtue , The Classic Book of Integrity and

8614-452: The cognate relation between de and zhi "to plant", Waley further noted the early Chinese regarded planting seeds as a de , hence it "means a latent power, a 'virtue' inherent in something." The linguist Peter A. Boodberg investigated the semantics and etymology of de 德 , which he called "perhaps the most significant word, next to tao 道 , in ancient Chinese macro- and microcosmology." The standard translation for it

8732-486: The colonial appropriation of Chinese culture. Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue and Jonathan Herman, argue that while they do not pretend to scholarship, they meet a real spiritual need in the West. These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references. The Tao Te Ching

8850-1092: The common specifications 道 ; dào ; 'way' and 道 ; dǎo (with variant 導 ; 'guide'), 道 has a rare additional pronunciation with the level tone, dāo , seen in the regional chengyu 神神道道 ; shénshendāodāo ; 'odd', 'bizarre', a reduplication of 道 and 神 ; shén ; 'spirit', 'god' from northeast China. In Middle Chinese ( c.  6th–10th centuries CE ) tone name categories, 道 and 導 were 去聲 ; qùshēng ; 'departing tone' and 上聲 ; shǎngshēng ; 'rising tone'. Historical linguists have reconstructed MC 道 ; 'way' and 導 ; 'guide' as d'âu- and d'âu ( Bernhard Karlgren ), dau and dau daw and daw , daw and daws (William H. Baxter), and dâu and dâu . In Old Chinese ( c.  7th–3rd centuries BCE ) pronunciations, reconstructions for 道 and 導 are *d'ôg (Karlgren), *dəw (Zhou), *dəgwx and *dəgwh , *luʔ , and *lûʔ and *lûh . The word 道 has many meanings. For example,

8968-489: The development of de ( 德 ) as the basis of traditional intersectional and integrative health and wellness, encouraging the experience and expression of the practitioners' True Nature (prenatal jing , Pre-Heaven essence). The unification of mind, body and environment is emphasised using the anatomy and physiological theory of wuxing , (five elements) traditional Chinese medicine. The core foundational movements, exercises, and teachings cultivate, direct, and harmonise

9086-434: The difficulties of rendering de into English. Frederic H. Balfour succinctly glosses de with Greek and Chinese: 德 . In ethics, Virtue — ἀρετή [ areté "excellence"]; in physics, Energy — δύναμις [ dunamis "potential power; force"]. 道 ["The Tao"] is the 體 ["body; embodiment"] of which 德 is the 用 ["use; function"]. James Legge gives this footnote to

9204-424: The difficulty of accurately translating de , ...is evident from the astonishing sweep of thoughtful renderings of its meaning: power, action, life, inner potency, indarrectitude (inner uprightness), charisma, mana (impersonal supernatural force inherent in gods and sacred objects), sinderesis (conscience as the directive force of one's actions), and virtue, to name only a few of the brave attempts to convey

9322-504: The existence and celestial importance of the Way of Heaven, he insisted that the Tao principally concerns human affairs. As a formal religious concept in Confucianism, Tao is the Absolute toward which the faithful move. In Zhongyong (The Doctrine of the Mean), harmony with the Absolute is the equivalent to integrity and sincerity. The Great Learning expands on this concept explaining that

9440-487: The eye is associated with worldly desires and wants as opposed to the heart, being the home of de and needs. Boodberg undertook a "graphophonetic analysis" of de . Based on the phonetic element zhi 直 "upright; erect" and the radical 行 suggesting movement, he translates de as English arrect "set upright; direct upward" (from Latin ad- "to") or insititious "ingrafted; inserted" potency (from Latin insitio "to implant; to graft"). Interpreting

9558-563: The fact that tê had early acquired, at least in Confucian literature, ethical connotations close to our "virtue," that is, as moral, and only rarely amoral or immoral, efficacy. They find, therefore, no quarrel with rendering tê , almost invariably, as "virtue." Philologists are, however, troubled by the absence in the Chinese term of any connotations reminiscent of the Latin etymon vir , such as manliness and virility. They remind us that tê

9676-469: The greater universe as well, and breathing them in could create similar effects. The manifestation of the Tao is de , which rectifies and invigorates the world with the Tao's radiance. Alternatively, philosophical Taoism regards the Tao as a non-religious concept; it is not a deity to be worshiped, nor is it a mystical Absolute in the religious sense of the Hindu brahman . Joseph Wu remarked of this conception of

9794-410: The hand element" is usually identified with the modern character 導 tao < d'ôg , 'to lead,', 'guide', 'conduct', and considered to be a derivative or verbal cognate of the noun tao , "way," "path." The evidence just summarized would indicate rather that " tao with the hand" is but a variant of the basic tao and that the word itself combined both nominal and verbal aspects of the etymon. This

9912-400: The highest morality both acts and is so regarded; While even he who is best versed in ritual not merely acts, but if people fail to respond Then he will pull up his sleeves and advance upon them. That is why it is said: "After Tao was lost, then came the 'power'; After the 'power' was lost, then came human kindness." After human kindness was lost, then came morality, After morality

10030-494: The horizontal 一 line) and 悳 or 惪 (without the 彳 "footstep" radical). The earliest written forms of de 德 are oracle script from the Shang dynasty ( c.  1600 –1046 BCE) and bronzeware script and seal script from the Zhou dynasty (1045–256  BCE ). Oracle characters wrote de 德 with 彳 "footstep; go" and 直 "straight", later bronze characters added

10148-456: The individual elements of the Universe derive. Catherine Keller considers it similar to the negative theology of Western scholars, but the Tao is rarely an object of direct worship, being treated more like the Hindu concepts of karma , dharma , or Ṛta than as a divine object. The Tao is more commonly expressed in the relationship between wu (void or emptiness, in the sense of wuji ) and

10266-543: The internal and external qi (energy) to build moral character ( 道德 ) to strengthen the connection with de ( 德 ). This in turn gives integrity to the trinity of Heaven, Earth, and Human, ( shen , qi , jing ) through the chong mai meridian (energy lines) and the zheng qi (upright energy). The application of the four pillars are emphasized throughout including, wuxing meditation education, daoyin ("guiding and pulling" exercises), shiliao , (traditional food therapy), and

10384-549: The kind of thing the Universe is and the kind of things we are." He asserted that every religion and philosophy contains foundations of universal ethics as an attempt to line up with the Tao—the way mankind was designed to be. In Lewis's thinking, God created the Tao and fully displayed it through the person of Jesus Christ . Similarly, Eastern Orthodox hegumen Damascene (Christensen), a pupil of noted monastic and scholar of East Asian religions Seraphim Rose , identified logos with

10502-447: The later verbal sense of 'say'. It should also be contrasted with 導 ; 'lead the way', 'guide', 'conduct', 'direct'. The simplified character 导 for 導 has 巳 ; '6th of the 12 Earthly Branches ' in place of 道 . The earliest written forms of "Tao" are bronzeware script and seal script characters from the Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE) bronzes and writings. These ancient forms more clearly depict

10620-430: The meaning of te in English. Of these, the last is by far the most frequently encountered. Unfortunately, it is also probably the least appropriate of all to serve as an accurate translation of te in the Tao Te Ching . Mair (1990 , p. 135) concludes that Daoist de is best translated "integrity", which "means no more than the wholeness or completeness of a given entity," and like de , "it represents

10738-403: The natural, dynamic balance between opposites, leading to its central principle of wu wei (inaction or inexertion). The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, and in particular, as similar to water. Like water it is undifferentiated, endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful, and impassively generous. The Song dynasty painter Chen Rong popularized

10856-706: The noun de can be translated as deugd ; the verb deugen means "to have virtue". According to Axel Schuessler, de < * tək 德 "moral force, virtue, character; quality, nature" is probably in the same word family as de < * tək 得 "to get" and perhaps zhi < * drək 直 "straight; right". It quotes the proposal of Edwin G. Pulleyblank that de 德 and de 得 are cognate with Tibetan language thub "a mighty one, one having power and authority". Wuxing heqidao ( 五行合气道 ), Gogyo Aikido in Japanese, has its roots in Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist theory. This Art centers on

10974-474: The power, the power readily, lends more power. While to those who conform themselves to inefficacy, inefficacy readily lends its ineffectiveness. Compare this third example: Tao gave them birth; The "power" of Tao reared them, Shaped them according to their kinds, Perfected them, giving to each its strength. Therefore of the ten thousand things there is not one that does not worship Tao and do homage to its "power". No mandate ever went forth that accorded to Tao

11092-468: The pronunciation of Old Chinese spoken during the Tao Te Ching ' s composition, approximately three-quarters rhymed in the original language. The Chinese characters in the earliest versions were written in seal script , while later versions were written in clerical script and regular script styles. The Tao Te Ching has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, mostly to English, German, and French. According to Holmes Welch, "It

11210-421: The reality of life before its descriptions of it. The word "Tao" has a variety of meanings in both the ancient and modern Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use meaning road, channel, path, principle, or similar, the word has acquired a variety of differing and often confusing metaphorical, philosophical, and religious uses. In most belief systems, the word is used symbolically in its sense of "way" as

11328-447: The reign of Duke Xian of Qin ( r.  384–362 BC ). The Tao Te Ching describes the Tao as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The Tao Te Ching intends to lead students to

11446-399: The reign of Emperor Jing of Han (157–141 BC). Other titles for the work include the honorific Sutra of the Way and Its Power ( 道德真經 ; Dàodé zhēnjing ) and the descriptive Five Thousand Character Classic ( 五千文 ; Wǔqiān wén ). Among the many transmitted editions of the Tao Te Ching text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version", which

11564-402: The right or proper way of existence, or in the context of ongoing practices of attainment or of the full coming into being, or the state of enlightenment or spiritual perfection that is the outcome of such practices. Some scholars make sharp distinctions between the moral or ethical usage of the word "Tao" that is prominent in Confucianism and religious Taoism and the more metaphysical usage of

11682-420: The right to be worshiped, nor to its "power" the right to be worshiped, nor to its "power" the right to receive homage. It was always and of itself so. Therefore as Tao bore them and the "power" of Tao reared them, made them grow, fostered them, harboured them, brewed for them, so you must, Rear them, but not lay claim to them, Control them, but never lean upon them, Be chief among them, but not manage them. This

11800-429: The selfhood of every being in the universe." De "power; virtue" is written with the Chinese character 德 in both Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese . This character 德 combines the chi 彳 "footstep; go" radical (recurring graphic elements that suggest meaning) with zhi 直 "straight; vertical" and xin 心 "heart; mind". De 德 has rare variant characters of 徳 (without

11918-691: The somewhat obsolescent deverbal noun from "to lead." These Confucian Analects citations of dao verbally meaning 'to guide', 'to lead' are: "The Master said, 'In guiding a state of a thousand chariots, approach your duties with reverence and be trustworthy in what you say" and "The Master said, 'Guide them by edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame." In modern Standard Chinese , 道 's two primary pronunciations are tonally differentiated between falling tone dào ; 'way', 'path' and dipping tone dǎo ; 'guide', 'lead' (usually written as 導 ). Besides

12036-701: The study of hands-on tui na (acupressure). De ( 德 ) is a keyword in the Daodejing where it occurs 44 times, compared to 76 occurrences of dao . The title refers to a textual division between the Daojing —chapters 1–37, since the first begins with dao : "The Way that can be told"—and the Dejing —chapters 38–81, since chapter 38 begins with de . The relatively modern compound word daode ( 道德 ) means "morality, ethical principles, ethics, moral philosophy". Two common de themes are its connection with

12154-422: The term used in philosophical Taoism and most forms of Mahayana Buddhism ; others maintain that these are not separate usages or meanings, seeing them as mutually inclusive and compatible approaches to defining the principle. The original use of the term was as a form of praxis rather than theory—a term used as a convention to refer to something that otherwise cannot be discussed in words—and early writings such as

12272-428: The theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment". This concept is used to explain ziran , or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Tao Te Ching used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On

12390-596: The time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteenth as Laozi. Some scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historicity. The first biographical reference to Laozi is in the Records of the Grand Historian , by Chinese historian Sima Qian ( c.  145–86 BC ), which combines three stories. In the first, Laozi was a contemporary of Confucius (551–479 BC). His surname was Li ( 李 ), and his personal name

12508-480: The traditional ordering and put the Te Ching section before the Tao Ching , which is why the Henricks translation of them is named "Te-Tao Ching". Based on calligraphic styles and imperial naming taboo avoidances, scholars believe that Text A can be dated to about the first decade and Text B to about the third decade of the 2nd century BC. In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo slips ,

12626-506: The traditions of Buddhism. Ancestors and the Mandate of Heaven were thought to emanate from the Tao, especially during the Song dynasty . Buddhism first started to spread in China during the first century AD and was experiencing a golden age of growth and maturation by the fourth century AD. Hundreds of collections of Pali and Sanskrit texts were translated into Chinese by Buddhist monks within

12744-507: The universe and even more phenomena in the world and nature. The Tao of Confucius can be translated as 'truth'. Confucianism regards the Way, or Truth, as concordant with a particular approach to life, politics, and tradition. It is held as equally necessary and well regarded as de and ren ('compassion', 'humanity'). Confucius presents a humanistic Tao. He only rarely speaks of the 'Way of Heaven'. The early Confucian philosopher Xunzi explicitly noted this contrast. Though he acknowledged

12862-429: The universe. Each creature, each object has a te which is its own manifestation of the Tao. The Zhuangzi uses de 191 times. Many contexts praise Daoist "integrity; inner power", some mock Confucianist and Mohist "virtue", and others make de wordplays. One of the chapter titles is " De chong fu " (5, 德充符 , "The Sign of Complete Virtue"). Several of the Zhuangzi translators (listed here ) explain

12980-514: The value of adhering to the principles of the Tao and the various consequences of failing to do so. The Tao was shared with Confucianism, Chan Buddhism and Zen , and more broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. In Taoism, Chinese Buddhism, and Confucianism, the object of spiritual practice is to "become one with the Tao" ( Tao Te Ching ) or to harmonize one's will with nature to achieve 'effortless action'. This involves meditative and moral practices. Important in this respect

13098-431: The verses reordered to synthesize the new finds. Although debated more in early scholarship, early modern scholars like Feng Youlan and Herrlee G. Creel still considered the work a compilation, and most modern scholarship holds the text to be a compilation, as typical for long-form early Chinese texts. Essentially the dating of A.C. Graham , the current text might have been compiled c.  250 BCE , drawing on

13216-461: The way the Zhuangzi does. Although differing, Mohism and Confucianism also discuss concepts of names and realities. The Tao Te Ching was traditionally ascribed to Laozi , whose historical existence has been a matter of scholarly debate. His name, which means "Old Master", has only fuelled controversy on this issue. Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old" and that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around

13334-487: The works attributed to Zhuang Zhou are dedicated to critiques of the failures of Confucianism. The translator Arthur Waley observed that [Tao] means a road, path, way; and hence, the way in which one does something; method, doctrine, principle. The Way of Heaven, for example, is ruthless; when autumn comes 'no leaf is spared because of its beauty, no flower because of its fragrance'. The Way of Man means, among other things, procreation; and eunuchs are said to be 'far from

13452-457: The world. A number of later scholars adopted this interpretation, such as Tai Chen during the Qing dynasty . Zhu Xi , Cheng Ho , and Cheng Yi perceived the Tao in the context of li ('principle') and t'ien li ('principle of Heaven'). Cheng Hao regarded the fundamental matter of li , and thus the Tao, to be humaneness. Developing compassion, altruism, and other humane virtues is following of

13570-482: Was Er ( 耳 ) or Dan ( 聃 ). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West; at the request of the keeper of the Han-ku Pass, Yinxi , Laozi composed the Tao Te Ching . In the second story, Laozi, also a contemporary of Confucius, was Lao Laizi ( 老萊子 ), who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the grand historian and astrologer Lao Dan ( 老聃 ), who lived during

13688-606: Was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian ( 郭店 ) in Jingmen , Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC. The Guodian Chu Slips comprise around 800 slips of bamboo with a total of over 13,000 characters, about 2,000 of which correspond with the Tao Te Ching. Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants. Several recent Tao Te Ching translations utilise these two versions, sometimes with

13806-441: Was lost, then came ritual. Here is another example: Truly, if one uses the Way as one's instrument, the results will be like the Way; if one uses the "power" as instrument, the results will be like the "power". If one uses what is the reverse of the "power", the results will be the reverse of the "power". For to those who have conformed themselves to the Way, the Way readily lends its power. To those who have conformed themselves to

13924-451: Was pronounced approximately dugh during the early Chou period (about 1100 to 600 B.C.). The meanings it conveys in texts from that era are "character," "[good or bad] intentions," "quality," "disposition," "personality," "personhood," "personal strength," and "worth." There is a very close correlation between these meanings and words deriving from Proto-Indo-European dugh (to be fit, of use, proper; acceptable; achieve). And there

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