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125-579: Proactive cyber defense differs from active defence, in that the former is pre-emptive (does not waiting for an attack to occur). Furthermore, active cyber defense differs from offensive cyber operations (OCO) in that the latter requires legislative exceptions to undertake. Hence, offensive cyber capabilities may be developed in collaboration with industry and facilitated by private sector; these operations are often led by nation-states. Common methods of proactive cyber defense include cyber deception, attribution, threat hunting and adversarial pursuit. The mission of

250-410: A Propaganda Agency at Wellington House. A distinguished body of literary talent was enlisted for the task, with its members including Arthur Conan Doyle , Ford Madox Ford , G. K. Chesterton , Thomas Hardy , Rudyard Kipling and H. G. Wells . Over 1,160 pamphlets were published during the war and distributed to neutral countries, and eventually, to Germany. One of the first significant publications,

375-405: A "just cause" for war might include the necessity of repelling an invasion, or retaliation for pillaging or a breach of treaty. War was always potentially nefas ("wrong, forbidden"), and risked religious pollution and divine disfavor . A "just war" ( bellum iustum ) thus required a ritualized declaration by the fetial priests. More broadly, conventions of war and treaty-making were part of

500-516: A State. Pope John Paul II in an address to a group of soldiers said the following: Peace, as taught by Sacred Scripture and the experience of men itself, is more than just the absence of war. And the Christian is aware that on earth a human society that is completely and always peaceful is, unfortunately, an utopia and that the ideologies which present it as easily attainable only nourish vain hopes. The cause of peace will not go forward by denying

625-604: A general strategy to mislead German high command as to the date and location of the invasion, which was obviously going to happen. Planning began in 1943 under the auspices of the London Controlling Section (LCS). A draft strategy, referred to as Plan Jael, was presented to Allied high command at the Tehran Conference . Operation Fortitude was intended to convince the Germans of a greater Allied military strength than

750-407: A government. Augustine asserted that was a personal and philosophical stance: "What is here required is not a bodily action, but an inward disposition. The sacred seat of virtue is the heart." Nonetheless, he asserted, peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could be stopped by only violence would be a sin. Defense of oneself or others could be a necessity, especially when it is authorized by

875-528: A heavy cost, in that the target population sooner or later recognizes them as propaganda and discredits the source. He writes, "This is one of the few dogmas advanced by Sykewarriors that is likely to endure as an axiom of propaganda: Credibility is a condition of persuasion. Before you can make a man do as you say, you must make him believe what you say." Consistent with this idea, the Allied strategy in World War II

1000-439: A justfiable means of war with justice being an objective of armed conflict. Important responsibilities, undesirable outcomes, or preventable atrocities may justify war. Opponents of the just war theory may either be inclined to a stricter pacifist standard (proposing that there has never been nor can there ever be a justifiable basis for war) or they may be inclined toward a more permissive nationalist standard (proposing that

1125-637: A large number of other religious leaders, including some with whom he had differed in the past, to write a rebuttal of the Germans' contentions. Both German and British theologians based themselves on the just war theory, each group seeking to prove that it applied to the war waged by its own side. The just war doctrine of the Catholic Church found in the 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church , in paragraph 2309, lists four strict conditions for "legitimate defense by military force:" The Compendium of

1250-432: A legitimate authority: They who have waged war in obedience to the divine command, or in conformity with His laws, have represented in their persons the public justice or the wisdom of government, and in this capacity have put to death wicked men; such persons have by no means violated the commandment, "Thou shalt not kill." While not breaking down the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine nonetheless originated

1375-517: A letter of challenge on the main mosque and set fire to the alcaicería before withdrawing. In 1574, having been informed about the pirate attacks previous to the Battle of Manila , Spanish captain Juan de Salcedo had his relief force return to the city by night while playing marching music and carrying torches in loose formations, so they would appear to be a much larger army to any nearby enemy. They reached

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1500-417: A party attacks an enemy who is about to attack this could be called active-defence. Defence is also a euphemism for war but does not carry the negative connotation of an offensive war. Usage in this way has broadened the concept of proactive defence to include most military issues including offensive, which is implicitly referred to as active-defence. Politically, the concept of national self-defence to counter

1625-434: A preventive war without clear proof that an attack is imminent cannot fail to raise serious moral and juridical questions. International legitimacy for the use of armed force, on the basis of rigorous assessment and with well-founded motivations, can only be given by the decision of a competent body that identifies specific situations as threats to peace and authorizes an intrusion into the sphere of autonomy usually reserved to

1750-628: A proactive pre-emptive operations group (P2OG) emerged from a report of the Defense Science Board's (DSB) 2002 briefing. The briefing was reported by Dan Dupont in Inside the Pentagon on September 26, 2002, and was also discussed by William M. Arkin in the Los Angeles Times on October 27, 2002. The Los Angeles Times has subsequently quoted U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld revealing

1875-482: A set of rules, which today still encompass the points commonly debated, with some modifications. Just-war theorists combine a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary. The criteria of the just-war tradition act as an aid in determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible. Just-war theories aim "to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces"; they attempt "to conceive of how

2000-450: A strong emphasis on intelligence, and reconnaissance, and the integration of staff activities to include intelligence, operations, communications, and planning. Defensive cyber operations refer to activities on or through the global information infrastructure to help protect an institutions' electronic information and information infrastructures as a matter of mission assurance. Defensive cyber does not normally involve direct engagement with

2125-509: A tight hold on propaganda efforts for its people. The Chinese government also utilizes cognitive warfare against Taiwan . The Centre interarmées des actions sur l'environnement is an organization made up of 300 soldiers whose mission is to assure to the four service arm of the French Armed Forces psychological warfare capacities. Deployed in particular to Mali and Afghanistan, its missions "consist in better explaining and accepting

2250-593: A true believer who participates in a justified war. Additionally, the document considers the just war criteria as developed in Western Christianity to be eligible for Russian Orthodoxy; therefore, the justified war theory in Western theology is also applicable to the Russian Orthodox Church. In the same document, it is stated that wars have accompanied human history since the fall of man , and according to

2375-416: A war need only to serve a nation's interests to be justifiable). In many cases, philosophers state that individuals do not need to be plagued by a guilty conscience if they are required to fight. A few philosophers ennoble the virtues of the soldier while they also declare their apprehensions for war itself. A few, such as Rousseau , argue for insurrection against oppressive rule. The historical aspect, or

2500-448: A war of aggression refers to a defensive war involving pre-emptive offensive strikes and is one possible criterion in the ' Just War Theory '. Proactive defence has moved beyond theory, and it has been put into practice in theatres of operation. In 1989 Stephen Covey 's study transformed the meaning of proactive as "to act before a situation becomes a source of confrontation or crisis". Since then, "proactive" has been placed in opposition to

2625-492: A winning strategy. He warned that planners must have a precise understanding of the active threat and not "remain ignorant of the enemy's condition". The thread of proactive defense is spun throughout his teachings. Psychiatrist Viktor Frankl was likely the first to use the term proactive in his 1946 book Man's Search for Meaning to distinguish the act of taking responsibility for one's own circumstances rather than attributing one's condition to external factors. Later in 1982,

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2750-471: Is a doctrine , also referred to as a tradition, of military ethics that aims to ensure that a war is morally justifiable through a series of criteria , all of which must be met for a war to be considered just. It has been studied by military leaders, theologians, ethicists and policymakers. The criteria are split into two groups: jus ad bellum ("right to go to war") and jus in bello ("right conduct in war"). The first group of criteria concerns

2875-464: Is based on a generalized prohibition of a recourse to force to resolve disputes between States, with the exception of two cases: legitimate defence and measures taken by the Security Council within the area of its responsibilities for maintaining peace. In every case, exercising the right to self-defence must respect "the traditional limits of necessity and proportionality". Therefore, engaging in

3000-404: Is capable of protecting against psychological aggression since it cannot be legally adjudicated. "Here the propagandists is [sic] dealing with a foreign adversary whose morale he seeks to destroy by psychological means so that the opponent begins to doubt the validity of his beliefs and actions." According to Boaz Ganor , terrorism weakens the sense of security and disturbs daily life, damaging

3125-421: Is ineffective, costly and leaves few options. Strategic deterrence needs a credible offensive, proactive defence and information peacekeeping capability in which to project power and influence globally through Cyberspace in the defence of the nation. Similarly, deterrence and diplomacy are required in the right dosage to dissuade purposeful interference with the national critical cyber infrastructures in influence in

3250-641: Is meant the teaching that the use of force is never justifiable, then, however well meant, it is mistaken, and it is hurtful to the life of our country." Armed conflicts such as the Spanish Civil War , World War II and the Cold War were, as a matter of course, judged according to the norms (as established in Aquinas' just war theory) by philosophers such as Jacques Maritain , Elizabeth Anscombe and John Finnis . The first work dedicated specifically to just war

3375-773: Is responsible for PSYOP efforts. The center is subordinate to the Cyber and Information Domain Service branch alongside multiple IT and Electronic Warfare battalions and consists of around 1000 soldiers. One project of the German PSYOP forces is the radio station Stimme der Freiheit (Sada-e Azadi, Voice of Freedom), heard by thousands of Afghans . Another is the publication of various newspapers and magazines in Kosovo and Afghanistan , where German soldiers serve with NATO . Just war theory The just war theory ( Latin : bellum iustum )

3500-560: Is rooted in the Chinese Stratagems outlined by Sun Tzu in The Art of War and Thirty-Six Stratagems . In its dealings with its rivals, China is expected to utilize Marxism to mobilize communist loyalists, as well as flex its economic and military muscle to persuade other nations to act in the Chinese government's interests. The Chinese government also tries to control the media to keep

3625-405: Is used "to denote any action which is practiced mainly by psychological methods with the aim of evoking a planned psychological reaction in other people". Various techniques are used, and are aimed at influencing a target audience's value system, belief system, emotions , motives , reasoning , or behavior . It is used to induce confessions or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to

3750-595: The Report on Alleged German Outrages of 1915, had a great effect on general opinion across the world. The pamphlet documented atrocities , both actual and alleged, committed by the German army against Belgian civilians. A Dutch illustrator, Louis Raemaekers , provided the highly emotional drawings which appeared in the pamphlet. In 1917, the bureau was subsumed into the new Department of Information and branched out into telegraph communications, radio , newspapers, magazines and

3875-490: The ius gentium , the "law of nations", the customary moral obligations regarded as innate and universal to human beings. Christian theory of the Just War begins around the time of Augustine of Hippo . The Just War theory, with some amendments, is still used by Christians today as a guide to whether or not a war can be justified. Christians may argue "Sometimes war may be necessary and right, even though it may not be good." In

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4000-627: The Croats and Slovenes . It had a significant effect on the final collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Army at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto . Aerial leaflets were dropped over German trenches containing postcards from prisoners of war detailing their humane conditions, surrender notices and general propaganda against the Kaiser and the German generals . By the end of the war, MI7b had distributed almost 26 million leaflets. The Germans began shooting

4125-502: The Lydian king Alyattes by fattening up a pair of mules and driving them out of the besieged city. When Alyattes' envoy was then sent to Priene, Bias had piles of sand covered with wheat to give the impression of plentiful resources. This ruse appears to have been well known in medieval Europe: defenders in castles or towns under siege would throw food from the walls to show besiegers that provisions were plentiful. A famous example occurs in

4250-511: The Mongolian Empire in the 13th century AD employed less subtle techniques. Defeating the will of the enemy before having to attack and reaching a consented settlement was preferable to facing his wrath. The Mongol generals demanded submission to the Khan and threatened the initially captured villages with complete destruction if they refused to surrender. If they had to fight to take the settlement,

4375-582: The Munich Agreement . After the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the British set up the Political Warfare Executive to produce and distribute propaganda. Through the use of powerful transmitters , broadcasts could be made across Europe. Sefton Delmer managed a successful black propaganda campaign through several radio stations which were designed to be popular with German troops while at

4500-624: The North Africa campaign . Mock hardware was created for Bodyguard ; in particular, dummy landing craft were stockpiled to give the impression that the invasion would take place near Calais . The Operation was a strategic success and the Normandy landings caught German defences unaware. Continuing deception, portraying the landings as a diversion from a forthcoming main invasion in the Calais region, led Hitler into delaying transferring forces from Calais to

4625-748: The Sandinista government in Nicaragua . The CIA used psychological warfare techniques against the Panamanians by delivering unlicensed TV broadcasts. The United States government has used propaganda broadcasts against the Cuban government through TV Marti , based in Miami, Florida . However, the Cuban government has been successful at jamming the signal of TV Marti. In the Iraq War ,

4750-576: The US , Russia , and China . In 2022, Meta and the Stanford Internet Observatory found that over five years people associated with the U.S. military, who tried to conceal their identities, created fake accounts on social media systems including Balatarin , Facebook , Instagram , Odnoklassniki , Telegram , Twitter , VKontakte and YouTube in an influence operation in Central Asia and

4875-526: The United States Department of Defense (DoD) used "proactive" as a contrary concept to "reactive" in assessing risk . In the framework of risk management "proactive" meant taking initiative by acting rather than reacting to threat events. Conversely "reactive" measures respond to a stimulus or past events rather than predicting the event. Military science considers defence as the science-art of thwarting an attack. Furthermore, doctrine poses that if

5000-548: The Warring States era . War was justified only as a last resort and only by the rightful sovereign; however, questioning the decision of the emperor concerning the necessity of a military action was not permissible. The success of a military campaign was sufficient proof that the campaign had been righteous. Japan did not develop its own doctrine of just war but between the 5th and the 7th centuries drew heavily from Chinese philosophy, and especially Confucian views. As part of

5125-444: The morality of going to war, and the second group of criteria concerns the moral conduct within war. There have been calls for the inclusion of a third category of just war theory ( jus post bellum ) dealing with the morality of post-war settlement and reconstruction. The just war theory postulates the belief that war, while it is terrible but less so with the right conduct, is not always the worst option. The just war theory presents

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5250-478: The twenty-first century there has been significant debate between traditional just war theorists, who largely support the existing law of war and develop arguments to support it, and revisionists who reject many traditional assumptions, although not necessarily advocating a change in the law. A 2017 study found that the just war tradition can be traced as far back as to Ancient Egypt . Egyptian ethics of war usually centered on three main ideas, these including

5375-425: The "just war tradition", deals with the historical body of rules or agreements that have applied in various wars across the ages. The just war tradition also considers the writings of various philosophers and lawyers through history, and examines both their philosophical visions of war's ethical limits and whether their thoughts have contributed to the body of conventions that have evolved to guide war and warfare. In

5500-633: The 8th-century legend of Lady Carcas , who supposedly persuaded the Franks to abandon a five-year siege by this means and gave her name to Carcassonne as a result. During the Granada War , Spanish captain Hernán Pérez del Pulgar routinely employed psychological tactics as part of his guerrilla actions against the Emirate of Granada . In 1490, infiltrating the city by night with a small retinue of soldiers, he nailed

5625-718: The Bible on peace and war in combination with ideas from Aristotle , Plato , Socrates , Saint Augustine and other philosophers whose writings are part of the Western canon . Aquinas' views on war drew heavily on the Decretum Gratiani , a book the Italian monk Gratian had compiled with passages from the Bible. After its publication in the 12th century, the Decretum Gratiani had been republished with commentary from Pope Innocent IV and

5750-466: The Dominican friar Raymond of Penafort . Other significant influences on Aquinas just war theory were Alexander of Hales and Henry of Segusio . In Summa Theologica Aquinas asserted that it is not always a sin to wage war, and he set out criteria for a just war. According to Aquinas, three requirements must be met. Firstly, the war must be waged upon the command of a rightful sovereign . Secondly,

5875-679: The German newspapers, was distributed via airborne leaflets by the French. The Central Powers were slow to use these techniques; however, at the start of the war the Germans succeeded in inducing the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire to declare 'holy war', or Jihad , against the Western infidels . They also attempted to foment rebellion against the British Empire in places as far afield as Ireland , Afghanistan , and India . The Germans' greatest success

6000-474: The Internet. The definition of Cyberspace has been extended to include all network-space which at some point, through some path, may have eventual access to the public internet. Under this definition, cyberspace becomes virtually every networked device in the world, which is not devoid of a network interface entirely. With the rapid evolution of information warfare operations doctrine in the 1990s, we have begun to see

6125-624: The Japanese campaign to take the northeastern island Honshu , Japanese military action was portrayed as an effort to "pacify" the Emishi people, who were likened to "bandits" and "wild-hearted wolf cubs" and accused of invading Japan's frontier lands. The notion of just war in Europe originates and is developed first in ancient Greece and then in the Roman Empire . It was Aristotle who first introduced

6250-597: The London Controlling Section, chartered in 1942 under the control of John Bevan. Clarke pioneered many of the strategies of military deception. His ideas for combining fictional orders of battle, visual deception and double agents helped define Allied deception strategy during the war, for which he has been referred to as "the greatest British deceiver of WW2". During the lead-up to the Allied invasion of Normandy , many new tactics in psychological warfare were devised. The plan for Operation Bodyguard set out

6375-662: The Middle East. Their posts, primarily in Arabic, Farsi and Russian, criticized Iran, China and Russia and gave pro-Western narratives. Data suggested the activity was a series of covert campaigns rather than a single operation. In operations in the South and East China Seas, both the United States and China have been engaged in " cognitive warfare ", which involves displays of force, staged photographs and sharing disinformation. The start of

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6500-453: The Mongol generals fulfilled their threats and massacred the survivors. Tales of the encroaching horde spread to the next villages and created an aura of insecurity that undermined the possibility of future resistance. Genghis Khan also employed tactics that made his numbers seem greater than they actually were. During night operations he ordered each soldier to light three torches at dusk to give

6625-577: The Reformation was legal theorist Hugo Grotius , whose De jura belli ac pacis re-considered Just War and fighting wars justly. At the beginning of the First World War , a group of theologians in Germany published a manifesto that sought to justify the actions of the German government. At the British government's request, Randall Davidson , Archbishop of Canterbury , took the lead in collaborating with

6750-494: The Sikh religion are understood to emphasise peace and nonviolence, especially before the 1606 execution of Guru Arjan by Mughal Emperor Jahangir , military force may be justified if all peaceful means to settle a conflict have been exhausted, thus resulting in a dharamyudh . Chinese philosophy produced a massive body of work on warfare, much of it during the Zhou dynasty , especially

6875-623: The Social Doctrine of the Church elaborates on the just war doctrine in paragraphs 500 to 501, while citing the Charter of the United Nations : If this responsibility justifies the possession of sufficient means to exercise this right to defense, States still have the obligation to do everything possible "to ensure that the conditions of peace exist, not only within their own territory but throughout

7000-573: The US involvement in the Vietnam War was unjust and immoral. A typical broadcast began as follows: How are you, GI Joe? It seems to me that most of you are poorly informed about the going of the war, to say nothing about a correct explanation of your presence over here. Nothing is more confused than to be ordered into a war to die or to be maimed for life without the faintest idea of what's going on. The CIA made extensive use of Contra soldiers to destabilize

7125-504: The United States also used tapes of distorted human sounds and played them during the night making the Vietnamese soldiers think that the dead were back for revenge. The Vietcong and their forces also used a program of psychological warfare during this war. Trịnh Thị Ngọ, also known as Thu Hương and Hanoi Hannah , was a Vietnamese radio personality. She made English-language broadcasts for North Vietnam directed at United States troops. During

7250-776: The United States used the shock and awe campaign to psychologically maim and break the will of the Iraqi Army to fight. In cyberspace, social media has enabled the use of disinformation on a wide scale. Analysts have found evidence of doctored or misleading photographs spread by social media in the Syrian Civil War and 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine , possibly with state involvement. Military and governments have engaged in psychological operations (PSYOP) and informational warfare (IW) on social networking platforms to regulate foreign propaganda, which includes countries like

7375-520: The Vietnam War, Ngọ became famous among US soldiers for her propaganda broadcasts on Radio Hanoi. Her scripts were written by the North Vietnamese Army and were intended to frighten and shame the soldiers into leaving their posts. She made three broadcasts a day, reading a list of newly killed or imprisoned Americans, and playing popular US anti-war songs in an effort to incite feelings of nostalgia and homesickness, attempting to persuade US GIs that

7500-534: The action of French forces in operation with local actors and thus gaining their trust: direct aid to the populations, management of reconstruction sites, actions of communication of influence with the population, elites and local elected officials". The center has capacities for analysis, influence, expertise and instruction. In the German Bundeswehr , the Zentrum Operative Kommunikation

7625-465: The advantages and potential benefits of war. The Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin defined only three types of just war. But picture to yourselves a slave-owner who owned 100 slaves warring against a slave-owner who owned 200 slaves for a more "just" distribution of slaves. Clearly, the application of the term "defensive" war, or war "for the defense of the fatherland" in such a case would be historically false, and in practice would be sheer deception of

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7750-471: The adversary. Active cyber operations refers to activities on the global information infrastructure to degrade, disrupt, influence, respond, and interfere with the capabilities, intentions, and activities of a foreign individual, state, organization, and terrorist groups. Active cyber defence decisively engages the adversary and includes adversarial pursuit activities. In the fifth century, B.C., Sun Tzu advocated foreknowledge (predictive analysis) as part of

7875-420: The battle for world opinion ; they had one of the world's most reputable news systems, with much experience in international and cross-cultural communication, and they controlled much of the undersea communications cable system then in operation. These capabilities were easily transitioned to the task of warfare. The British also had a diplomatic service that maintained good relations with many nations around

8000-424: The call to deter malicious activity and prevent cyber attacks against America's critical infrastructures. The notion of "proactive defence" has a rich history. The hype of "proactive cyber defence" reached its zenith around 1994, under the auspices of Information Warfare. Much of the current doctrine related to proactive cyber defence was fully developed by 1995. Now most of the discussions around proactive defence in

8125-500: The case of a country that has been invaded by an occupying force, war may be the only way to restore justice.  Saint Augustine held that individuals should not resort immediately to violence, but God has given the sword to government for a good reason (based upon Romans 13:4). In Contra Faustum Manichaeum book 22 sections 69–76, Augustine argues that Christians, as part of a government, need not be ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when they are forced to do so by

8250-602: The cinema. In 1918, Viscount Northcliffe was appointed Director of Propaganda in Enemy Countries. The department was split between propaganda against Germany organized by H.G Wells, and propaganda against the Austro-Hungarian Empire supervised by Wickham Steed and Robert William Seton-Watson ; the attempts of the latter focused on the lack of ethnic cohesion in the Empire and stoked the grievances of minorities such as

8375-525: The city unopposed. During the Attack on Marstrand in 1719, Peter Tordenskjold carried out military deception against the Swedes. Although probably apocryphal, he apparently succeeded in making his small force appear larger and feed disinformation to his opponents, similar to the Operations Fortitude and Titanic in World War II. The start of modern psychological operations in war is generally dated to World War I . By that point, Western societies were increasingly educated and urbanized, and mass media

8500-427: The common people, of philistines, of ignorant people, by the astute slaveowners. Precisely in this way are the present-day imperialist bourgeoisie deceiving the peoples by means of "national ideology" and the term "defense of the fatherland" in the present war between slave-owners for fortifying and strengthening slavery. The anarcho-capitalist scholar Murray Rothbard (1926-1995) stated that "a just war exists when

8625-514: The concept and terminology to the Hellenic world that called war a last resort requiring conduct that would allow the restoration of peace. Aristotle argues that the cultivation of a military is necessary and good for the purpose of self-defense, not for conquering: "The proper object of practising military training is not in order that men may enslave those who do not deserve slavery, but in order that first they may themselves avoid becoming enslaved to others" ( Politics , Book 7). In ancient Rome ,

8750-411: The conduct of wars. The 1179 Third Council of the Lateran adopted a version of it for the whole church. The just war theory by Thomas Aquinas has had a lasting impact on later generations of thinkers and was part of an emerging consensus in Medieval Europe on just war. In the 13th century Aquinas reflected in detail on peace and war. Aquinas was a Dominican friar and contemplated the teachings of

8875-402: The cosmological role of Egypt, the pharaoh as a divine office and executor of the will of the gods, and the superiority of the Egyptian state and population over all other states and peoples. Egyptian political theology held that the pharaoh had the exclusive legitimacy in justly initiating a war, usually claimed to carry out the will of the gods. Senusret I , in the Twelfth Dynasty , claimed, "I

9000-407: The creation of the "Proactive, Pre-emptive Operations Group". The mission was to conduct Aggressive, Proactive, Pre-emptive Operations to interdiction and disruption the threat using: psychological operations, managed information dissemination, precision targeting, and information warfare operations. Today, the proactive defence strategy means improving information collection by stimulating reactions of

9125-413: The cyber domain in support of mission objectives. The main difference between cyber security and cyber defence is that that cyber defence requires a shift from network assurance (security) to mission assurance . Cyber defence focuses on sensing, detecting, orienting, and engaging adversaries in order to assure mission success and to outmanoeuver the adversary. This shift from security to defence requires

9250-553: The democratic process by foreign states. Intelligence agencies, such as the National Security Agency, were criticized for buying up and stockpiling zero-day vulnerabilities and keeping them secret and developing mainly offensive capabilities instead of defensive measures and, thereby, helping patch vulnerabilities. This criticism was widely reiterated and recognized after the May 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack . The notion of

9375-486: The early Qin dynasty and late Eastern Zhou dynasty in 1st century AD China, the Empty Fort Strategy was used to trick the enemy into believing that an empty location was an ambush, in order to prevent them from attacking it using reverse psychology . This tactic also relied on luck, should the enemy believe that the location is a threat to them. In the 6th century BCE Greek Bias of Priene successfully resisted

9500-666: The formation of a just war tradition . The just war tradition, which was well established by the 19th century, found its practical application in the Hague Peace Conferences (1899 and 1907) and in the founding of the League of Nations in 1920. After the United States Congress declared war on Germany in 1917, Cardinal James Gibbons issued a letter that all Catholics were to support the war because "Our Lord Jesus Christ does not stand for peace at any price... If by Pacifism

9625-438: The gospel , they will continue to accompany it. While recognizing war as evil, the Russian Orthodox Church does not prohibit its members from participating in hostilities if there is the security of their neighbours and the restoration of trampled justice at stake. War is considered to be necessary but undesirable. It is also stated that the Russian Orthodox Church has had profound respect for soldiers who gave their lives to protect

9750-400: The government of their country. Mass communication such as radio allows for direct communication with an enemy populace, and therefore has been used in many efforts. Social media channels and the internet allow for campaigns of disinformation and misinformation performed by agents anywhere in the world. Since prehistoric times, warlords and chiefs have recognized the importance of weakening

9875-458: The illusion of an overwhelming army and deceive and intimidate enemy scouts. He also sometimes had objects tied to the tails of his horses, so that riding on open and dry fields raised a cloud of dust that gave the enemy the impression of great numbers. His soldiers used arrows specially notched to whistle as they flew through the air, creating a terrifying noise. Another tactic favored by the Mongols

10000-402: The leaflet-dropping pilots, prompting the British to develop unmanned leaflet balloons that drifted across no-man's land . At least one in seven of these leaflets were not handed in by the soldiers to their superiors, despite severe penalties for that offence. Even General Hindenburg admitted that "Unsuspectingly, many thousands consumed the poison", and POWs admitted to being disillusioned by

10125-432: The life and security of their neighbours. The just war theory, propounded by the medieval Christian philosopher Thomas Aquinas , was developed further by legal scholars in the context of international law . Cardinal Cajetan , the jurist Francisco de Vitoria , the two Jesuit priests Luis de Molina and Francisco Suárez , as well as the humanist Hugo Grotius and the lawyer Luigi Taparelli were most influential in

10250-513: The likelihood of cyber war between these countries and examined the relevance of the PTT and other similar international relations theories. Psychological operations Psychological warfare ( PSYWAR ), or the basic aspects of modern psychological operations ( PsyOp ), has been known by many other names or terms, including Military Information Support Operations ( MISO ), Psy Ops, political warfare , "Hearts and Minds", and propaganda . The term

10375-580: The literature are much less "proactive" than the earlier discussions in 1994. Present-day proactive cyber defence strategy was conceived within the context of the rich discussion that preceded it, existing doctrine and real proactive cyber defence programs that have evolved globally over the past decade. As one of the founding members of Canada's interdepartmental committee on Information Warfare, Dr. Robert Garigue and Dave McMahon pointed out that "strategic listening, core intelligence, and proactive defence provide time and precision. Conversely, reacting in surprise

10500-412: The manipulation and/or disruption of networks and systems with the purpose of limiting or eliminating the adversary's operational capability. This capability can be required to guarantee one's freedom of action in the cyber domain. Cyber-attacks can be launched to repel an attack (active defence) or to support the operational action. Strategically, cyber defence refers to operations that are conducted in

10625-522: The moral considerations which ought to constrain the use of violence in war), war is a coping mechanism for righteous combatants who, by divine edict, have no choice but to subject themselves to their political masters and seek to ensure that they execute their war-fighting duty as justly as possible. Isidore of Seville writes: Those wars are unjust which are undertaken without cause. For aside from vengeance or to fight off enemies no just war can be waged. The medieval Peace of God (Latin: pax dei )

10750-578: The morale of their opponents. According to Polyaenus , in the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC) between the Persian Empire and ancient Egypt , the Persian forces used cats and other animals as a psychological tactic against the Egyptians, who avoided harming cats due to religious belief and superstitions. Currying favor with supporters was the other side of psychological warfare, and an early practitioner of this

10875-451: The originator's objectives, and are sometimes combined with black operations or false flag tactics. It is also used to destroy the morale of enemies through tactics that aim to depress troops' psychological states. Target audiences can be governments , organizations , groups , and individuals , and is not just limited to soldiers. Civilians of foreign territories can also be targeted by technology and media so as to cause an effect on

11000-410: The policymakers, countries prefer using pre-emptive measures before being targeted. This topic is extensively studied by the political scientists focusing on the power transition theory (PTT), where Organski and Kugler first discussed that powerful countries start the attack before the balance of power changes in favor of the relatively weaker but the rising state. Although the PTT has relevance to explain

11125-593: The possibility and the obligation to defend it. The War and Peace section in the Basis of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church is crucial for understanding the Russian Orthodox Church 's attitude towards war. The document offers criteria of distinguishing between an aggressive war, which is unacceptable, and a justified war, attributing the highest moral and sacred value of military acts of bravery to

11250-427: The pre-emptive and proactive operations is to conduct aggressive interception and disruption activities against an adversary using: psychological operations , managed information dissemination, precision targeting, information warfare operations, computer network exploitation, and other active threat reduction measures. The proactive defense strategy is meant to improve information collection by stimulating reactions of

11375-404: The preventive stage of an attack by the enemy. The discipline of world politics and the notions of pre-emptive cyber defence topics are the two important concepts that need to be examined because we are living in a dynamic international system in which actors (countries) update their threat perceptions according to the developments in the technological realm. Given this logic employed frequently by

11500-560: The propaganda leaflets that depicted the use of German troops as mere cannon fodder . In 1915, the British began airdropping a regular leaflet newspaper Le Courrier de l'Air for civilians in German-occupied France and Belgium. At the start of the war, the French government took control of the media to suppress negative coverage. Only in 1916, with the establishment of the Maison de la Presse, did they begin to use similar tactics for

11625-559: The public use of " cognitive warfare " as a clear movement occurred in 2013 with China's political rhetoric. Most modern uses of the term psychological warfare refer to the following military methods: Most of these techniques were developed during World War II or earlier, and have been used to some degree in every conflict since. Daniel Lerner was in the OSS (the predecessor to the American CIA) and in his book, attempts to analyze how effective

11750-402: The purpose of psychological warfare. One of its sections was the "Service de la Propagande aérienne" (Aerial Propaganda Service), headed by Professor Tonnelat and Jean-Jacques Waltz , an Alsatian artist code-named " Hansi ". The French tended to distribute leaflets of images only, although the full publication of US President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points , which had been heavily edited in

11875-549: The real battleground for nearly seven weeks. The United States ran an extensive program of psychological warfare during the Vietnam War . The Phoenix Program had the dual aim of assassinating National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF or Viet Cong ) personnel and terrorizing any potential sympathizers or passive supporters. During the Phoenix Program, over 19,000 NLF supporters were killed. In Operation Wandering Soul ,

12000-720: The real invasion force. At the same time Operation Titanic involved the RAF dropping fake paratroopers to the east and west of the Normandy landings. The deceptions were implemented with the use of double agents, radio traffic and visual deception. The British " Double Cross " anti-espionage operation had proven very successful from the outset of the war, and the LCS was able to use double agents to send back misleading information about Allied invasion plans. The use of visual deception, including mock tanks and other military hardware had been developed during

12125-578: The resonating projections of his orations for effect. Germany's Fall Grün plan of invasion of Czechoslovakia had a large part dealing with psychological warfare aimed both at the Czechoslovak civilians and government as well as, crucially, at Czechoslovakia's allies. It became successful to the point that Germany gained the acquiescence of the British and French governments to the German occupation of Czechoslovakia without having to fight an all-out war, sustaining only minimum losses in covert war before

12250-551: The same time introducing news material that would weaken their morale under a veneer of authenticity. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made use of radio broadcasts for propaganda against the Germans. Churchill favoured deception; he said "In wartime, truth is so precious that she should always be attended by a bodyguard of lies.". During World War II, the British made extensive use of deception – developing many new techniques and theories. The main protagonists at this time were 'A' Force, set up in 1940 under Dudley Clarke , and

12375-467: The siblings, establishing criteria like proportionality ( chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no attacking people in distress), just means (no poisoned or barbed arrows), just cause (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded. In Sikhism , the term dharamyudh describes a war that is fought for just, righteous or religious reasons, especially in defence of one's own beliefs. Though some core tenets in

12500-458: The target country's capability to function. Terrorism is a strategy that aims to influence public opinion into pressuring leaders to give in to the terrorists' demands, and the population becomes a tool to advance the political agenda. According to U.S. military analysts, attacking the enemy's mind is an important element of the People's Republic of China 's military strategy. This type of warfare

12625-436: The threat agents and to provide strike options as well as to enhance operational preparation of the real or virtual battlespace. Proactive cyber defence can be a measure for detecting and obtaining information before a cyber attack, or it can also be impending cyber operation and be determining the origin of an operation that involves launching a pre-emptive, preventive, or cyber counter-operation. The offensive capacity includes

12750-541: The threat agents, provide strike options to enhance operational preparation of the real as well as virtual battle space. The P2OG has been recommended to be constituted of one hundred highly specialized people with unique technical and intelligence skills. The group would be overseen by the White House's deputy national security adviser and would carry out missions coordinated by the secretary of defence. Proactive measures, according to DoD are those actions taken directly against

12875-458: The traditional notion of jus ad bellum (justice of war, that is, the circumstances in which wars can be justly fought), war is a coping mechanism for righteous sovereigns who would ensure that their violent international encounters are minimal, a reflection of the Divine Will to the greatest extent possible, and always justified. In terms of the traditional notion of jus in bello (justice in war, or

13000-506: The use of arms might be restrained, made more humane, and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice". The just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts: when it is right to resort to armed force (the concern of jus ad bellum ) and what is acceptable in using such force (the concern of jus in bello ). In 1869 the Russian military theorist Genrikh Antonovich Leer theorized on

13125-444: The use of mass propaganda to influence the minds of the German population in the decades to come. By calling his movement The Third Reich, he was able to convince many civilians that his cause was not just a fad, but the way of their future. Joseph Goebbels was appointed as Propaganda Minister when Hitler came to power in 1933, and he portrayed Hitler as a messianic figure for the redemption of Germany. Hitler also coupled this with

13250-504: The use of pre-emptive cyber defence policies, this theory can still be difficult to apply when it comes to cyber defence entirely because it is not easy to understand the relative power differentials of the international actors in terms of their cyber capabilities. On the other hand, we can still use the PTT to explain the security perceptions of the United States and China, as a rising country, in terms of their use of pre-emptive cyber defence policies. Many scholars have already begun to examine

13375-462: The use of proactive and preemptive cyber defence concepts used by policymakers and scholars. The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace, a book written by George W. Bush, was published in February 2003 outlining the initial framework for both organizing and prioritizing efforts to secure the cyberspace. It highlighted the necessity for public-private partnerships. In this book, proactive threads include

13500-476: The various strategies were. He concludes that there is little evidence that any of them were dramatically successful, except perhaps surrender instructions over loudspeakers when victory was imminent. Measuring the success or failure of psychological warfare is very hard, as the conditions are very far from being a controlled experiment. Lerner also divides psychological warfare operations into three categories: Lerner says grey and black operations ultimately have

13625-459: The very phrase itself in his work The City of God : But, say they, the wise man will wage Just Wars. As if he would not all the rather lament the necessity of just wars, if he remembers that he is a man; for if they were not just he would not wage them, and would therefore be delivered from all wars. Augustine further taught: No war is undertaken by a good state except on behalf of good faith or for safety. J. Mark Mattox writes, In terms of

13750-424: The war needs to be waged for just cause, on account of some wrong the attacked have committed. Thirdly, warriors must have the right intent, namely to promote good and to avoid evil. Aquinas came to the conclusion that a just war could be offensive and that injustice should not be tolerated so as to avoid war. Nevertheless, Aquinas argued that violence must only be used as a last resort. On the battlefield , violence

13875-529: The words "reactive" or "passive". Cyber is derived from " cybernetics ", a word originally coined by a group of scientists led by Norbert Wiener and made popular by Wiener's book of 1948, Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine . Cyberspace typically refers to the vast and growing logical domain composed of public and private networks; it means independently managed networks linked together

14000-418: The world". It is important to remember that "it is one thing to wage a war of self-defense; it is quite another to seek to impose domination on another nation. The possession of war potential does not justify the use of force for political or military objectives. Nor does the mere fact that war has unfortunately broken out mean that all is fair between the warring parties". The Charter of the United Nations ...

14125-538: The world, in contrast to the reputation of the German services. While German attempts to foment revolution in parts of the British Empire , such as Ireland and India , were ineffective, extensive experience in the Middle East allowed the British to successfully induce the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire . In August 1914, David Lloyd George appointed a Member of Parliament (MP), Charles Masterman , to head

14250-538: Was Alexander the Great , who successfully conquered large parts of Europe and the Middle East and held on to his territorial gains by co-opting local elites into the Greek administration and culture. Alexander left some of his men behind in each conquered city to introduce Greek culture and oppress dissident views. His soldiers were paid dowries to marry locals in an effort to encourage assimilation . Genghis Khan , leader of

14375-572: Was a 10th century mass movement in Western Europe instigated by the clergy that granted immunity from violence for non-combatants. Starting in the 11th Century, the Truce of God (Latin: treuga dei ) involved Church rules that successfully limited when and where fighting could occur: Catholic forces (e.g. of warring barons ) could not fight each other on Sundays, Thursdays, holidays, the entirety of Lent and Advent and other times, severely disrupting

14500-472: Was available in the form of large circulation newspapers and posters. It was also possible to transmit propaganda to the enemy via the use of airborne leaflets or through explosive delivery systems like modified artillery or mortar rounds. At the start of the war, the belligerents, especially the British and Germans, began distributing propaganda, both domestically and on the Western front . The British had several advantages that allowed them to succeed in

14625-501: Was catapulting severed human heads over city walls to frighten the inhabitants and spread disease in the besieged city's closed confines. This was especially used by the later Turko-Mongol chieftain. The Muslim caliph Omar , in his battles against the Byzantine Empire , sent small reinforcements in the form of a continuous stream, giving the impression that a large force would accumulate eventually if not swiftly dealt with. During

14750-570: Was central to the Egyptian notion of just war and its ability to guarantee Egypt virtually no limits on what it could take, do, or use to guarantee the ambitions of the state. The Indian Hindu epic , the Mahabharata , offers the first written discussions of a "just war" ( dharma-yuddha or "righteous war"). In it, one of five ruling brothers ( Pandavas ) asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified. A long discussion then ensues between

14875-625: Was in giving the Russian revolutionary, Lenin , free transit on a sealed train from Switzerland to Finland after the overthrow of the Tsar . This soon paid off when the Bolshevik Revolution took Russia out of the war. Adolf Hitler was greatly influenced by the psychological warfare tactics the Allies employed during World War I, and attributed Germany's defeat in the conflict to the effects this tactics had on German troops. He became committed to

15000-447: Was nursed to be a conqueror...his [Atum's] son and his protector, he gave me to conquer what he conquered." Later pharaohs also considered their sonship of the god Amun-Re as granting them absolute ability to declare war on the deity's behalf. Pharaohs often visited temples prior to initiating campaigns, where the pharaoh was believed to receive their commands of war from the deities. For example, Kamose claimed that "I went north because I

15125-430: Was only justified to the extent it was necessary. Soldiers needed to avoid cruelty and a just war was limited by the conduct of just combatants. Aquinas argued that it was only in the pursuit of justice, that the good intention of a moral act could justify negative consequences, including the killing of the innocent during a war. Various Renaissance humanists promoted Pacificist views. A leading humanist writer after

15250-457: Was predominantly one of truth (with certain exceptions). In Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes , Jacques Ellul discusses psychological warfare as a common peace policy practice between nations as a form of indirect aggression. This type of propaganda drains the public opinion of an opposing regime by stripping away its power on public opinion. This form of aggression is hard to defend against because no international court of justice

15375-645: Was strong (enough) to attack the Asiatics through the command of Amon, the just of counsels." A stele erected by Thutmose III at the Temple of Amun at Karnak "provides an unequivocal statement of the pharaoh's divine mandate to wage war on his enemies." As the period of the New Kingdom progressed and Egypt heightened its territorial ambition, so did the invocation of just war aid the justification of these efforts. The universal principle of Maat , signifying order and justice,

15500-564: Was the 15th-century sermon De bellis justis of Stanisław of Skarbimierz (1360–1431), who justified war by the Kingdom of Poland against the Teutonic Knights . Francisco de Vitoria criticized the conquest of America by the Spanish conquistadors on the basis of just-war theory. With Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius , just war theory was replaced by international law theory, codified as

15625-469: Was the case, through fictional field armies , faked operations to prepare the ground for invasion and "leaked" misinformation about the Allied order of battle and war plans. Elaborate naval deceptions (Operations Glimmer , Taxable and Big Drum ) were undertaken in the English Channel. Small ships and aircraft simulated invasion fleets lying off Pas de Calais, Cap d'Antifer and the western flank of

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