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104-624: The Zone Subject to Ecological Conservation Cuxtal Reserve is recognized as the first Protected Natural Area (ANP by its initials in Spanish) promoted and decreed directly by a municipality in the state of Yucatán during the Mérida City Council 1991–1993. Its establishment as ANP was approved by the council on June 28, 1993, and its decree was published in the Official Gazette of the Government of

208-429: A bar and reception hall, accessed via a library staircase from a courtyard below. The Chapel was severely damaged by Hurricane Gilberto in 1988. It has been fully restored. The sculpted beam that supported the old roof was rescued and re-installed. The chapel has been re-sanctified and occasional Masses, baptisms and weddings are celebrated. All of the henequen plantations ceased to exist as autonomous communities with

312-488: A biological system, where ecosystems are broken up into smaller parts through land-use changes (e.g. agriculture ) and natural disturbance. This both reduces the size of the population and increases the degree of isolation. These smaller and isolated populations tend to be more vulnerable to extinction. Fragmenting ecosystems decreases the quality of the habitat. The edge of a fragment has a different range of environmental conditions and therefore supports different species than

416-510: A conurban area with 10 colonies of the city of Mérida belonging to the Dzununcán commisariat, Xmatkuil sub-commissariat and parts of San Antonio Xluch and Kanasín. Zoning is the tool that defines the zones or subzones of the Reserve according to criteria that allow the identification of territorial geographical units where specific use rules are applied according to protection requirements, which makes

520-611: A degraded natural ecosystem commenced in 1896, at Nairm (as it is known to people of the Kulin nation), or Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne. Local government and community groups replanted degraded areas of the foreshore reserves with the indigenous plant species, coastal teatree ( Leptospermum laevigatum ). The projects were motivated by utilitarian considerations: to conserve recreation sites, and promote tourism. However, some local residents, including Australian journalist, nature writer and amateur ornithologist, Donald Macdonald , were distressed at

624-400: A desired successional pathway may be difficult if multiple stable states exist. Looking over 40 years of wetland restoration data, Klötzli and Gootjans (2001) argue that unexpected and undesired vegetation assemblies "may indicate that environmental conditions are not suitable for target communities". Succession may move in unpredicted directions, but constricting environmental conditions within

728-658: A diverse international group of restoration scientists and practitioners. The second edition builds on the first edition of the Standards, which was released December 12, 2016, at the Convention on Biological Diversity 's 13th Conference of the Parties in Cancun, Mexico. The development of these Standards has been broadly consultative. The first edition was circulated to dozens of practitioners and experts for feedback and review. After release of

832-590: A means to reduce the presence of invasive species and limit their spread. As this approach emphasizes the control of invaders, the restoration techniques can differ from typical restoration projects. The goal of such projects is not necessarily to restore an entire ecosystem or habitat. These projects frequently use lower diversity mixes of aggressive native species seeded at high density. They are not always actively managed following seeding. The target areas for this type of restoration are those which are heavily dominated by invasive species. The goals are to first remove

936-688: A narrow range may rein in the possible successional trajectories and increase the likelihood of the desired outcome. A study quantified climate change mitigation potentials of 'high-income' nations shifting diets – away from meat-consumption – and restoration of the spared land. They find that the hypothetical dietary change "could reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high-income nations' diets by 61% while sequestering as much as 98.3 (55.6–143.7) GtCO 2 equivalent, equal to approximately 14 years of current global agricultural emissions until natural vegetation matures", outcomes they call "double climate dividend". For most restoration projects it

1040-425: A percentage higher than 75 of the species throw their leaves in the dry season of the year. In the Reserve, SBC occurs on secondary vegetation surfaces in different conservation or succession states. It includes 474 species included in 96 families. The families with the greatest number of species are Fabaceae (58), Euphorbiaceae (30) and Asteraceae (24), which represent 23.5% of the total number of plants registered in

1144-649: A range of factors. Targets are set based on factors such as the level of ecosystem degredation, how much ecosystem functionality can realistically be restored, local community views, and the costs of restoration efforts. There are many reasons to restore ecosystems. Some include: There are considerable differences of opinion on how to set restoration goals and define their success. As Laura J. Martin writes, "Restoration targets are moral and political matters as well as logistical and scientific ones." Some restorationists urge active restoration (e.g. killing invasive animals) and others believe that protected areas should have

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1248-408: A restoration project. Spatial heterogeneity of resources can influence plant community composition, diversity, and assembly trajectory. Baer et al. (2005) manipulated soil resource heterogeneity in a tallgrass prairie restoration project. They found increasing resource heterogeneity, which on its own was insufficient to ensure species diversity in situations where one species may dominate across

1352-504: A restoration site that is closer to remaining vegetation will be more likely to be naturally regenerated through seed disperal than a site that is further away. Ecosystem function describes the most basic and essential foundational processes of any natural systems, including nutrient cycles and energy fluxes . An understanding of the complexity of these ecosystem functions is necessary to address any ecological processes that may be degraded. Ecosystem functions are emergent properties of

1456-580: A separate field in ecology in the late twentieth century. The term was coined by John Aber and William Jordan III when they were at the University of Wisconsin–Madison . In 2024, the European Union passed a nature restoration law aiming to restore 20% of degraded ecosystems by 2030 and 100% by 2050. The representative of Austria, Leonore Gewessler , voted against the will of its government and can face up to 10 years in prison for doing so. Prior to

1560-1032: A single conceptual umbrella". Community assembly theory attempts to explain the existence of environmentally similar sites with differing assemblages of species. It assumes that species have similar niche requirements, so that community formation is a product of random fluctuations from a common species pool . Essentially, if all species are fairly ecologically equivalent, then random variation in colonization, and migration and extinction rates between species, drive differences in species composition between sites with comparable environmental conditions. Genetic diversity has shown to be as important as species diversity for restoring ecosystem processes. Hence ecological restorations are increasingly factoring genetic processes into management practices. Population genetic processes that are important to consider in restored populations include founder effects , inbreeding depression , outbreeding depression , genetic drift , maladaption and gene flow . Such processes can predict whether or not

1664-544: A species successfully establishes at a restoration site. Leaf litter accumulation plays an important role in the restoration process. Higher quantities of leaf litter hold higher humidity levels, a key factor for the establishment of plants. The process of accumulation depends on factors like wind and species composition of the forest. The leaf litter found in primary forests is more abundant, deeper, and holds more humidity than in secondary forests. These technical considerations are important to take into account when planning

1768-508: A variety of strategies employed at different restoration sites to better understand the most successful management techniques to control invasion. To develop restoration ecology into a full science and to improve its practice requires generalizations about the processes governing the development of restored communities. While new experiments can be designed, one way forward is to use data from existing restoration studies to relate plant species performance to their ecological trait. Progress along

1872-423: A viable ecosystem restoration strategy, especially in countries with large agriculture footprints. Climate benefits from nature restoration are "dwarfed by the scale of ongoing fossil fuel emissions ". It risks "over-relying on land for mitigation at the expense of phasing out fossil fuels". Despite these issues, nature restoration is receiving increasing attention, with a study concluding that "Land restoration

1976-418: Is a driver of environmental degradation . However it is vital that ecosystem restoration efforts do not clash with increasing needs for food production. Restoration frameworks aim to assist policy decisions by minimizing trade-offs between ecological restoration and production and evaluating the best use of land to balance carbon storage and food growing. For example, agroforestry is increasing considered as

2080-410: Is an important option for tackling climate change but cannot compensate for delays in reducing fossil fuel emissions" as it is "unlikely to be done quickly enough to notably reduce the global peak temperatures expected in the next few decades". Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as

2184-536: Is controversial and sometimes critiqued as carbon colonialism. Another driver of restoration projects in the United States is the legal framework of the Clean Water Act , which often requires mitigation for damage inflicted on aquatic systems by development or other activities. Ecological restoration draws on a wide range of ecological concepts. Disturbance is a change in environmental conditions that disrupt

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2288-620: Is distributed to North America, 24 to South America (for example Didelphis marsupialis, Natalus mexicanus, Conepatus semistriatus, Cuniculus paca, among others), 17 from North to South America (for example Mormoops megalophylla, Diphylla ecaudata, Urocyon cinereoargenteus, Mustela frenata, others), 6 are endemic to Mesoamerica (C. mayensis, Sciurus yucatanensis, Orthogeomys hispidus, Heteromys gaumeri, Ototylomys phyllotis and Reithrodontomys gracilis) and 4 are endemic to Mexico (Rhogeessa aeneus, Molossus alvarezi, Handleyomys melanotis and Peromyscus yucatanicus). Herpailurus yagouaroundi with distribution in

2392-399: Is equal to 48% of the total extraction. It is formed by surfaces that have undergone little alteration and represent critical habitats for biodiversity, so they require special care to ensure their long-term conservation. It has an area of 2,716.38 hectares and its objective is the conservation of less disturbed and more representative areas of the low deciduous forest ecosystem. This sub-zone

2496-551: Is essential to understand the life cycles and interactions of species, as well as the essential elements such as food, water, nutrients, space, and shelter needed to support species populations. Scientists estimate that the current species extinction rate, or the rate of the Holocene extinction , is 1,000 to 10,000 times higher than the normal, background rate. Habitat loss is a leading cause of species extinctions and ecosystem service decline. Two methods have been identified to slow

2600-593: Is generally recommended to source material from local populations, to increase the chance of restoration success and minimize the effects of maladaptation . However the definition of local can vary based on species, habitat and region. US Forest Service recently developed provisional seed zones based on a combination of minimum winter temperature zones, aridity, and the Level III ecoregions. Rather than putting strict distance recommendations, other guidelines recommend sourcing seeds to match similar environmental conditions that

2704-845: Is important for protecting biodiversity. However, conservation biology is primarily rooted in population biology . Because of that, it is generally organized at the population genetic level and assesses specific species populations (i.e. endangered species ). Restoration ecology is organized at the community level, which focuses on broader groups within ecosystems. In addition, conservation biology often concentrates on vertebrate and invertebrate animals because of their salience and popularity, whereas restoration ecology concentrates on plants . Restoration ecology focuses on plants because restoration projects typically begin by establishing plant communities. Ecological restoration, despite being focused on plants, may also have " umbrella species " for individual ecosystems and restoration projects. For example,

2808-548: Is important if we are to understand how to restore natural processes and minimize anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystems. Ecological succession is the process by which a community changes over time, especially following a disturbance. In many instances, an ecosystem will change from a simple level of organization with a few dominant pioneer species to an increasingly complex community with many interdependent species. Restoration often consists of initiating, assisting, or accelerating ecological successional processes, depending on

2912-634: Is located south of Mérida. Take Periférico south to exit "Dzununcan, Avenida 86" and turn toward Dzununcan for 1 km. The original property of Hacienda Santa Cruz was designated as a Franciscan monastery in 1640. It was later operated as a henequen production farm by José María Palomeque. On 28 June 1993 the Cuxtal Ecological Reserve was designated to protect the history of the 7 large haciendas, their adjoining pueblas, 12 minor archaeological sites, 6 cenotes and one of Merida's important water supply stations. Hacienda Santa Cruz Palomeque

3016-440: Is not addressed, and that the time-scales set out for 'complete' restoration are unreasonably short, while other critical markers for full-scale restoration are either ignored or abridged due to feasibility concerns. In other instances an ecosystem may be so degraded that abandonment (allowing a severely degraded ecosystem to recover on its own) may be the wisest option. Local communities sometimes object to restorations that include

3120-476: Is not always a sustainable solution long term without additional weed control, such as mowing, or re-seeding. Restoration projects are also used as a way to better understand what makes an ecological community resistant to invasion. As restoration projects have a broad range of implementation strategies and methods used to control invasive species, they can be used by ecologists to test theories about invasion. Restoration projects have been used to understand how

3224-448: Is represented by the forest vegetation of the Mérida I water treatment plant and partially by the ejidos of Molas and San Pedro Chimay. Only non-invasive technical and scientific research studies are allowed, which do not involve the extraction or transfer of wildlife specimens, or habitat modification. It is formed by the surfaces in good state of conservation where it is sought to maintain

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3328-486: Is surrounded by stone walls and shaded by large trees. The Main House was built in the colonial style with stone walls 1.8 meters thick and stone floors. The very high ceilings and arches of the corridor allowed the entry of horse-drawn carriages. The powerhouse was the most important building of the estate during the henequen phase, as it was where the sisal fiber was processed into rope. The powerhouse has been converted into

3432-423: Is the main area to conserve the water that supplies the entire municipality of Mérida and its inhabitants. The Mérida I water treatment plant is located in the core area of the Reserve, where the best-preserved area of forest vegetation is located, which in turn represents the main area for extracting groundwater for the purpose of supplying the entire municipality of Mérida. , with a volume of 42.3 mm3 per year that

3536-461: The Monarch butterfly is an umbrella species for conserving and restoring milkweed plant habitat, because Monarch butterflies require milkweed plants to reproduce. Finally, restoration ecology has a stronger focus on soils , soil structure , fungi , and microorganisms because soils provide the foundation of functional terrestrial ecosystems. The Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) released

3640-429: The system as a whole , thus monitoring and management are crucial for the long-term stability of ecosystems. A completely self-perpetuating and fully functional ecosystem is the ultimate goal of restorative efforts. We must understand what ecosystem properties influence others to restore desired functions and reach this goal. Community assembly "is a framework that can unify virtually all of (community) ecology under

3744-625: The 2005 census conducted by the INEGI , the population of the city was 718 inhabitants, of whom 372 were men and 346 were women. Ecological restoration Ecological restoration , or ecosystem restoration, is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, destroyed or transformed. It is distinct from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures. Ecological restoration can reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change , support

3848-459: The Broken Hill regeneration area project. This project involved the natural regeneration of indigenous flora on a severely wind eroded site of hundreds of hectares, located in arid western New South Wales. Local and state governments, and the Broken Hill mining industry, supported and funded the project. In fact, as the regeneration area project was so well adapted to the harsh arid-zone conditions,

3952-571: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The Reserve's systematic list of birds includes 161 species comprised in 117 genera, 39 families and 19 orders. The orders with the highest number of species are the Passeriformes (93), Accipitriformes (9), Apodiformes (7) and Columbiformes (7) that represent 72% of the total number of birds registered in

4056-747: The Federation, 2014). A species with distribution in the Reserve (Micrurus diastema) is endemic to Mexico and 23 species (37%) are endemic to the Yucatán Peninsula (for example T. yucatana, C. defender, Sceloporus chrysostictus, Coniophanes meridanus, among others). Globally, 69% of the reptiles with distribution in the Reserve are classified by the IUCN as of minor concern, R. areolata is considered almost threatened; T. yucatana and C. defender as vulnerable. Terrapene yucatana and B. imperator are included in Appendix II of

4160-496: The New South Wales state government adopted it as a model for the proposed restoration of the twenty million hectares of the arid western portion of the state that had been reduced to a severely eroded condition. Legislation to this effect was passed in 1949. Another significant early Australian settler ecological restoration project occurred on the north coast of New South Wales. From approximately 1840 settlers forcibly occupied

4264-716: The Official Mexican Standard NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, Environmental protection-Species native to Mexico of wild flora and fauna-Risk categories and specifications for inclusion, exclusion or change-List of species at risk. Two are subject to special protection (Roystonea regia and Cedrela odorata), six threatened (Astronium graveolens, Coccothrinax readii, Pseudophoenix sargentii, Thrinax radiata, Zinnia violacea and Beaucarnea pliabilis) and one endangered (Pterocereus gaumeri). Three species are considered endemic to Mexico (C. readii, P. gaumeri and B. pliabilis). Invertebrates The systematic list of invertebrates of

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4368-555: The Reserve are listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as of minor concern. The systematic list of reptiles includes 61 species in 49 genera, 20 families and 2 orders (Annex 5). The order with the greatest number of species is Squamata (57), which represents 93% of the total number of reptiles registered in the Reserve, with the colubrids being the most representative with 19 species. In counterpart,

4472-574: The Reserve includes 472 species comprised in 192 genera, 30 families and 15 orders. Of the 472 taxa, 330 have been determined up to gender. The order with the greatest number of species is represented by the Hymenoptera with (356), followed by the order Araneae (74) which together represent 91% of the total of invertebrates registered in the Reserve, with the Braconids and Araneidae being the most representative with 284 and 37 species, respectively. In contrast,

4576-650: The Reserve includes 56 species comprised in 50 genera, 20 subfamilies, 26 families and 9 orders. The orders with the highest number of species are Chiroptera (23), Rodentia (15) and Carnivora (10), which represent 86% of the total number of mammals registered in the Reserve, with phyllostomid bats and cricetid rodents being the most representative 10 and 8 species, respectively. In contrast, the orders Cingulata, Pilosa, Soricomorpha, Lagomorpha are only represented by Dasypus novemcinctus, Tamandua mexicana, Cryptotis mayensis and Sylvilagus floridanus, respectively. Six genera have two representatives and 44 species (78%) are monotypic. In

4680-496: The Reserve is included in Appendix I of CITES. At a global level, all species with distribution in the Reserve are classified by the IUCN as of minor concern. The historical cultural heritage of the Reserve is composed of eleven areas of heritage of which two are commissariat without haciendas, seven are haciendas that gave rise to commissariat and subcommittees and two are private haciendas. The two commissariat are: Molas and Dzununcan;

4784-455: The Reserve, 6 species and subspecies cataloged at risk are distributed by NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010. Of these, 2 are subject to special protection (Cryptotis mayensis and Eumops nanus), 3 are threatened (Mimon cozumelae, Herpailurus yagouaroundi and Galictis vittata) and 1 are in danger of extinction (Tamandua mexicana mexicana). Odocoileus virginianus is considered within the list of species and priority populations for conservation. Peromyscus leucopus

4888-800: The Reserve, being the parulids and accipitridae, the most representative with 17 and 9 species, respectively. On the other hand, the orders Anseriformes, Nyctibiiformes and Tinamiformes are only represented by Crypturellus cinnamomeus, Dendrocygna autumnalis and Nyctibius jamaicensis, respectively. Twenty-six genera have two or more representatives and 91 (56%) are monotypic species. In the Reserve, 13 species cataloged at risk are distributed by NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010. Of these, 11 are subject to special protection (for example Buteogallus anthracinus, Eupsittula nana, Vireo pallens, Passerina ciris, among others) and 2 threatened (Meleagris ocellata and Geranospiza caerulescens). Meleagris ocellata, Zenaida asiatica, E. nana, Amazona albifrons and Amazona xantholora are considered within

4992-701: The Reserve. In February 2017, the agreement is published authorizing the creation of the Decentralized Municipal Public Organization for Operation and Administration of the Cuxtal Reserve Ecological Preservation Area. In subsequent months, its Governing Board, the advisory board and the Operational Directorate are set up, which will favor the operation, management and administration of the Reserve. It has an area of 10,757 hectares. The Reserve limits to

5096-530: The Reserve. In contrast, 33.33% of the families (Adoxaceae, Apiaceae, Araucariaceae, Asphodelaceae, Begoniaceae, Burseraceae, Cannabaceae, Cannaceae, Casuarinaceae, Combretaceae, Cycadaceae, Cyclanthaceae, Dryopteridaceae, Iridaceae, Lauraceae, Loasaceae, Loranthaceae, Menispermaceae, Moringaceae, Muntingiaceae, Oxalidaceae, Papaveraceae, Piperaceae, Plantaginaceae, Ranunculaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Ulmaceae, Violaceae, Vitaceae, Zamiaceae and Zygophyllaceae) are monospecific. Nine species (1.9%) are classified as at risk in

5200-594: The Reserve: 2,689 (approx. 3.6% of the Mérida population) Within the communities are the protected haciendas: Hacienda Santa Cruz Palomeque Hacienda Santa Cruz Palomeque is located in the Mérida Municipality in the state of Yucatán in southeastern Mexico. It is one of the properties that arose during the nineteenth century henequen boom. It is part of the Cuxtal Ecological Reserve which

5304-521: The State of Yucatán on July 14, 1993. In this way the Reserve was constituted as the first ANP of competition municipal government in Yucatán, a situation that prevails today. In December 2016 the initiative called "Alliance for Cuxtal" was formally set up constituted by government agencies, educational institutions, civil associations and the private sector, to promote actions aimed at the rescue and preservation of

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5408-442: The agrarian land reform implemented by President Lazaro Cardenas in 1937. His decree turned the haciendas into collective ejidos , leaving only 150 hectares to the former landowners for use as private property. Figures before 1937 indicate populations living on the farm. After 1937, figures indicate those living in the community, as the remaining Hacienda Santa Cruz Palomeque houses only the owner's immediate family. According to

5512-447: The aim has been to return ecosystems to a past state (historic baseline), based on the idea that past conditions represent a 'pristine' or ideal functioning state. However, this approach is now questioned because human-driven environmental changes, including climate change, continuously alter ecosystems, resulting in a shifting baseline . Today, it’s widely recognized that there may be several possible targets for restoration, based on

5616-415: The aim of the restoration, or an incomplete understanding of the underlying ecological framework lead to insufficient measures. This may be because, as Peter Alpert says, "people may not [always] know how to manage natural systems effectively". Furthermore, many assumptions are made about myths of restoration such as carbon copy , where a restoration plan, which worked in one area, is applied to another with

5720-431: The area in the long term. Vegetation and Flora The vegetation in the Reserve is low deciduous forest (SBC). SBCs are plant communities that are distributed in hot climates, the driest of the subhumid. These are ecosystems that mark a thermal and hydric limit between the types of vegetation that are distributed in the hot humid climate zones. The arboreal components in this forest reach a maximum height of up to 15 meters and

5824-466: The bare minimum of human interference, such as rewilding . Skeptics doubt that the benefits justify the economic investment or point to failed restoration projects and question the feasibility of restoration altogether. It can be difficult to set restoration goals because, as Anthony Bradshaw writes, "ecosystems are not static, but in a state of dynamic equilibrium." Some scientists argue that, though an ecosystem may not be returned to its original state,

5928-478: The birds (114 species) present in the Reserve are residents of the region, highlighting the order of the passerines with 57 species. Thirty-three species are migratory, of which only one is summer migratory (Vireo flavoviridis). Two species have occasional presence (Buteo swainsoni and Zonotrichia leucophrys) and 12 are considered bystanders (for example Coccyzus americanus, Chordeiles minor, Contopus virens, Progne subis, among others). The systematic list of mammals in

6032-497: The coastal hinterlands, dispossessed First Nations communities, destroyed extensive areas of biologically diverse rainforest and converted the land to farms. Only small patches of rainforest survived. In 1935 dairy farmer Ambrose Crawford began restoring a degraded four acre (1.7 hectare) patch of local rainforest, or "Big Scrub" (Lowland Tropical Rainforest), as it was referred to, at Lumley Park reserve, Alstonville. His main restoration techniques were clearing weeds that were smothering

6136-450: The conservation process more effective, without diminishing the potential management and sustainable use of their natural resources. It is formed by the best-preserved surfaces and which have arboreal vegetation whose geographical location favors long-term conservation. It has an area of 4,928.52 hectares and its main objective is the preservation of ecosystems and their functionality in the medium and long term, so only current conditions. It

6240-443: The current conditions of the ecosystems and even improve them in the places that are required, through agroecological options. It has an area of 2,212.14 hectares and its objective is to promote connectivity and the preservation of germplasm. Only non-invasive technical studies and scientific research, environmental education activities and tourism of low environmental impact and ecological enrichment, that do not imply modifications of

6344-466: The data. Managers vary in how much data they collect, and how many records they keep. Some agencies keep only a handful of physical copies of data that make it difficult for the researcher to access. Many restoration projects are limited by time and money, so data collection and record-keeping are not always feasible. However, this limits the ability of scientists to analyze restoration projects and give recommendations based on empirical data. Agriculture

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6448-590: The development of International Principles & Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration by the Society for Ecological restoration (see below) – however, this approach is contended, with scientists active in the field suggesting that this is restrictive, and instead principles and guidelines offer flexibility. There is further complication in that restoration ecologists who want to collect large-scale data on restoration projects can face enormous hurdles in obtaining

6552-472: The diversity of the species introduced in the restoration affects invasion. We know that generally higher diversity prairies have lower levels of invasion. The incorporation of functional ecology has shown that more functionally diverse restorations have lower levels of invasion. Furthermore, studies have shown that using native species functionally similar to invasive species are better able to compete with invasive species. Restoration ecologists have also used

6656-669: The dramatic increase in the number of protected natural areas in the 1980s. In 1997 the National Wildlife Federation signed a memorandum of understanding with the Intertribal Bison Cooperative, the first-ever conservation agreement between an environmental organization and an inter-tribal group, to advocate for the restoration of wild bison to tribal lands. Anishinaabek/Neshnabék throughout the Great Lakes region are leading ecological restoration projects that, in

6760-576: The emergence of ecology as a scientific discipline, large-scale restoration began with big game restoration in the early 20th century. The first native plant restoration project in the United States was established in 1907 by Eloise Butler in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was followed by the Vassar College Ecological Laboratory restoration program, founded by Professor Edith Roberts in 1921. The first tallgrass prairie restoration

6864-414: The exploitation activities that are carried out (milpa, henequen, crops, stone extraction, human settlements, urbanization, agricultural production systems, livestock and forestry), to lead towards the development sustainable, apply the current federal, state and municipal regulations, so that the necessary conditions are created for the reconversion and ecological restoration that allows the conservation of

6968-512: The first edition, SER held workshops and listening sessions, sought feedback from key international partners and stakeholders, opened a survey to members, affiliates and supporters, and considered and responded to published critiques. The International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration: Indigenous peoples , land managers, stewards, and laypeople have been practicing ecological restoration or ecological management for thousands of years. Restoration ecology emerged as

7072-686: The forced dispossession of the First Nations communities of Australia. The substantial Traditional Ecological Knowledge of First Nations communities was not utilised in the historical restoration projects. Many of the first Australian settler restoration projects were initiated by volunteers, often in the form of community groups. Many of these volunteers appreciated and utilised science resources, such as botanical and ecological knowledge. Local and state government agencies participated, and also industry. Australian scientists came to play an increasingly important role. A prominent scientist who took an interest in

7176-414: The former leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation . Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest. Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019. Additionally, the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in

7280-417: The functioning of an ecosystem. Disturbance can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and is a natural component of many communities. For example, many forest and grassland restorations implement fire as a natural disturbance regime . However the severity and scope of anthropogenic impact has grown in the last few centuries. Differentiating between human-caused and naturally occurring disturbances

7384-476: The functions of a " novel ecosystem " are still valuable. Ecosystem restoration can mitigate climate change through activities such as afforestation . However, afforestation can have negative impacts on biodiversity especially when considering tree-planting initiatives in tropical savannas . The impacts of afforestation on water supply and quality are also debated and vary by region, climate and age of afforestation projects. Forestry-based carbon offsetting

7488-531: The future than keeping existing forests intact. It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation. Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution ". Both restoration ecologists and conservation biologists agree that protecting and restoring habitat

7592-408: The haciendas with settlements are Hunxectamán are: San Ignacio Tesip, San Pedro Chimay, San Antonio Tahdzibichén, Santa Cruz Palomeque, Xmatkuil and San Nicolás de Dzoyaxché; and the haciendas are San Antonio Chuntuac and San Antonio Xluch. There are 7 police substations and 2 stations within the reserve, which is made up of 9 communities: Population with disability: 590 approx. Mayan population in

7696-489: The indigenous vegetation. It was also found that furrowing (or ploughing) of eroded areas resulted in the natural regeneration of indigenous vegetation. So successful were these programs that the South Australian government adopted them as approved state soil conservation policies in 1936. Legislation introduced in 1939 codified these policies. In 1936 mining assayer Albert Morris and his restoration colleagues initiated

7800-406: The interior. Restorative projects can increase the effective size of a population by adding suitable habitat and decrease isolation by creating habitat corridors that link isolated fragments. Reversing the effects of fragmentation is an important component of restoration ecology. The composition of the surrounding landscape can also influence the effectiveness of restoration projects. For example,

7904-527: The introduction of large predators or plants that require disturbance regimes such as regular fires, citing threat to human habitation in the area. High economic costs can also be perceived as a negative impact of the restoration process. Public opinion is very important in the feasibility of a restoration; if the public believes that the costs of restoration outweigh the benefits they will not support it. Many failures have occurred in past restoration projects, many times because clear goals were not set out as

8008-472: The list of species and priority populations for conservation. Nine species are considered endemic to Mexico (e.g. Colinus nigrogularis, Nyctiphrynus yucatanicus, Melanerpes pygmaeus, Amazona xantholora, among others). Falco peregrinus is included in Appendix I of CITES. Globally, 96% of the birds with distribution in the Reserve are classified by the IUCN as minor concern and four almost threatened (M. ocellata, E. nana, Melanoptila glabirostris and P. ciris). 71% of

8112-586: The loss of valued biological qualities, and campaigned to fully restore the Teatree ecosystems and conserve them and their indigenous fauna. The degraded arid-zone regions of Australia were the site of historical ecological restoration projects. Pastoral industry established in the arid-zone regions of South Australia and New South Wales resulted in the substantial degradation of these areas by ca.1900 resulting in severe wind erosion. From approximately 1930, Australian pastoralists implemented revegetation projects aiming to

8216-574: The most representative with 4 species. In counterpart, the Urodela order is represented only by Bolitoglossa yucatana. The genus Leptodactylus has two representatives and more than 85% (11) are monotypic species. Four species are cataloged at risk by NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 (Bolitoglossa yucatana, Rhinophrynus dorsalis, Triprion petasatus and Rana brownorum) all with the special protection category. Bolitoglossa yucatana and Triprion petasatus are endemic species. Globally, all species of amphibians with distribution in

8320-421: The north with the city of Mérida, to the south with the commissariats of Yaxnic and Texán Cámara, to the east with the municipality of Kanasín and to the west with the commissariats of San José Tzal and Ticimul. Within its territory are two commissariats: Dzununcán and Molas, seven sub-commisariats: Santa Cruz Palomeque , Tahdzibichén, Xmatkuil , San Pedro Chimay , San Ignacio Tesip , Hunxectamán , Dzoyaxché and

8424-805: The order Testudines is represented by Kinosternon scorpioides, Rhinoclemmys areolata, Terrapene yucatana and Trachemys venusta. Nine genera have two or more representatives and more than 65% (40) are monotypic species. Considering the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, 25 species are cataloged in risk included in 17 subject to special protection (for example K. scorpioides, Pseudelaphe phaescens, Imantodes gemmistratus, Crotalus tzabcan = C. durissus, among others), 7 threatened ( for example Coleonyx elegans, Ctenosaura similis, Boa imperator = B. constrictor imperator, among others) and 1 endangered (Ctenosaura defender). Ctenosaura similis and C. defender are considered species and priority populations for conservation (Official Gazette of

8528-419: The orders Scorpiones, Amblypygi, Prostigmata, Ixodida and Psocodea are only represented by Diplocentrus sp, Paraphrynus sp, Tetranychus urticae, Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Pediculus humanus, respectively. The amphibians of the Reserve are represented by 13 species comprised in 12 genera, 8 families and 2 orders (Annex 4). The order with the greatest number of species is Anura (12 species), with tree frogs being

8632-406: The original characteristics or natural conditions, and the construction of support facilities, are exclusively allowed. for scientific research or environmental monitoring. The exploitation activities carried out here must be subject to strict control measures. It is formed by the surfaces where there is a greater use of the territory. It has an area of 5,828.48 hectares and its objective is to guide

8736-472: The provision of ecosystem services and support local economies. The United Nations has named 2021-2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Habitat restoration involves the deliberate rehabilitation of a specific area to reestablish a functional ecosystem. This may differ from historical baselines (the ecosystem's original condition at a particular point in time). To achieve successful habitat restoration, it

8840-455: The rainforest plants and planting of suitable indigenous rainforest species. Crawford utilised professional government botanists as advisors, and received support from his local government council. The restored rainforest reserve still exists today. The UK Natural Capital Committee (NCC) made a recommendation in its second State of Natural Capital report published in March 2014 that in order to meet

8944-458: The range of resource levels. Their findings were consistent with the theory regarding the role of ecological filters on community assembly. The establishment of a single species, best adapted to the physical and biological conditions can play an inordinately important role in determining the community structure. Restoration is used as a tool for reducing the spread of invasive plant species many ways. The first method views restoration primarily as

9048-624: The rate of species extinction and ecosystem service decline: conservation of quality habitat and restoration of degraded habitat. The number and size of ecological restoration projects have increased exponentially in recent years. Restoration goals reflect political choices, and differ by place and culture. On a global level, the concept of nature-positive has emerged as a societal goal to achieve full nature recovery by 2050, including through restoration of degraded ecosystems to reverse biodiversity loss . The Society for Ecological Restoration defines restoration as "the process of assisting

9152-429: The recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed." Restoration ecology is the academic study of the science of restoration, whereas ecological restoration is the implementation by practitioners. Ecological restoration includes a wide diversity of methods including erosion control, reforestation , removal of non-native species and weeds, revegetation of disturbed areas, daylighting streams ,

9256-408: The reintroduction of native species , habitat and range improvement for targeted species and establishing wildlife corridors . Many scholars and practitioners argue that ecological restoration must include local communities and stakeholders: they call this process the "social-ecological restoration". The goal of ecosystem restoration depends on the specific context of each location. Traditionally,

9360-478: The reversal of vegetation degradation was botanist and plant ecologist Professor T G Osborn , University of Adelaide, who, in the 1920s, conducted pioneering research into the causes of arid-zone indigenous vegetation degradation. From this time, Australian botanists, plant ecologists and soil erosion researchers have increasingly developed interests in the recovery of ecological functioning on degraded sites. The earliest known attempt by Australian settlers to restore

9464-405: The same results expected, but not realized. One of the struggles for both fields is a divide between restoration ecology and ecological restoration in practice. Many restoration practitioners as well as scientists feel that science is not being adequately incorporated into ecological restoration projects. In a 2009 survey of practitioners and scientists, the "science-practice gap" was listed as

9568-495: The scope of a problem in-depth, without providing concrete solutions. Additionally many restoration ecology studies are carried out under controlled conditions and frequently at scales much smaller than actual restorations. Whether or not these patterns hold true in an applied context is often unknown. There is evidence that these small-scale experiments inflate type II error rates and differ from ecological patterns in actual restorations. One approach to addressing this gap has been

9672-543: The second edition of the International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration on September 27, 2019, in Cape Town, South Africa, at SER's 8th World Conference on Ecological Restoration. The publication provides updated and expanded guidance on the practice of ecological restoration, clarifies the breadth of ecological restoration and allied environmental repair activities, and includes ideas and input from

9776-429: The second most commonly cited reason limiting the growth of both science and practice of restoration. There are a variety of theories about the cause of this gap. However, it has been well established that one of the main issues is that the questions studied by restoration ecologists are frequently not found useful or easily applicable by land managers. For instance, many publications in restoration ecology characterize

9880-497: The severity of the disturbance. Following mild to moderate natural and anthropogenic disturbances, restoration in these systems involves hastening natural successional trajectories through careful management. However, in a system that has experienced a more severe disturbance (such as in urban ecosystems), restoration may require intensive efforts to recreate environmental conditions that favor natural successional processes. Habitat fragmentation describes spatial discontinuities in

9984-437: The species and then in so doing, reduce the number of invasive seeds being spread to surrounding areas. An example of this is through the use of biological control agents (such as herbivorous insects) which suppress invasive weed species while restoration practitioners concurrently seed in native plant species that take advantage of the freed resources. These approaches have been shown to be effective in reducing weeds, although it

10088-711: The species is exposed to, either now, or under projected climate change. For example, sourcing for Castilleja levisecta found that farther source populations that matched similar environmental variables were better suited for the restoration project than closer source populations. Similarly, a suite of new methods are surveying gene-environment interactions in order to identify the optimum source populations based on genetic adaptation to environmental conditions. Some view ecosystem restoration as impractical, partially because restorations often fall short of their goals. Hilderbrand et al. point out that many times uncertainty (about ecosystem functions, species relationships, and such)

10192-482: The study of techniques like prescribed burning . It was followed by the 40-hectare Schulenberg Prairie at the Morton Arboretum , initiated in 1962 by Ray Schulenberg and Robert Betz. Betz then worked with The Nature Conservancy to establish the 260-hectare Fermi National Laboratory tallgrass prairie in 1974. Restoration ecology emerged as a distinct sub-discipline of ecology and natural resources management with

10296-529: The substantial to full restoration of indigenous flora to degraded, wind eroded areas. At his arid-zone Koonamore research station in South Australia, established in 1925, Professor T G Osborn studied the loss of indigenous vegetation caused by overstocking and the resultant wind erosion and degradation, concluding that restoration of the indigenous saltbushes ( Atriplex spp.), bluebushes ( Maireana spp.) and mulga ( Acacia aneura ) vegetation communities

10400-458: The words of Kyle Whyte, "seek to learn from, adapt, and put into practice local human and nonhuman relationships and stories at the convergence of deep Anishinaabe history and the disruptiveness of industrial settler campaigns." Australia has been the site of historically significant ecological restoration projects, commencing in the 1930s. These projects were responses to the extensive environmental damage inflicted by colonising settlers, following

10504-401: Was part of this historic designation. Within the reserve are the following protected haciendas: In 2007 Robert and Carolyn Franck bought the abandoned estate and renovated it. The estate currently operates as a boutique hotel and can be rented for private events. The estate has an area of 7 hectares with several buildings, extensive gardens and vestiges of old buildings. The whole area

10608-432: Was possible, if a stock exclosure and natural regeneration revegetation technique was applied to degraded paddocks. Most likely influenced by Osborn's research, throughout the 1930s South Australian pastoralists adopted this revegetation technique. For example, at Wirraminna station (or property, ranch), following fencing to exclude stock, severe soil-drifts were fully revegetated and stabilised through natural regeneration of

10712-559: Was set aside in 1993 to protect both the man-made and natural history of the reserve area of Mérida . The name (Santa Cruz Palomeque) is a combination of Spanish terms. "Santa Cruz" ( holy cross in English) is a reference to the Brotherhood of the Holy Cross and Palomeque is the surname of one of the former owners, José María Palomeque, who also owned part of Hacienda Chenkú . The property

10816-410: Was the 1936 Curtis Prairie at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Arboretum . Civilian Conservation Corps workers replanted nearby prairie species onto a former horse pasture, overseen by university faculty including Aldo Leopold , Theodore Sperry , Henry C. Greene , and John T. Curtis . The UW Arboretum was the center of tallgrass prairie research through the first half of the 20th century and

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