132-630: Cutchogue ( / ˈ k ʌ tʃ ɒ ɡ / KUTCH -og ) is a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) in Suffolk County , New York , United States, on the North Fork of Long Island 's East End . The population was 3,349 at the 2010 census. The Cutchogue CDP roughly represents the area of the Cutchogue hamlet in the town of Southold . According to the United States Census Bureau ,
264-429: A Privatdozent (private lecturer) in physics. For his habilitation lecture, he produced a second paper on Maxwell's Demon, Über die Entropieverminderung in einem thermodynamischen System bei Eingriffen intelligenter Wesen (On the reduction of entropy in a thermodynamic system by the intervention of intelligent beings), that had actually been written soon after the first. This introduced the thought experiment now called
396-832: A civil engineer , and Tekla Vidor, raised Leó on the Városligeti Fasor in Pest . He had two younger siblings, a brother, Béla, born in 1900, and a sister, Rózsi, born in 1901. On October 4, 1900, the family changed its surname from the German "Spitz" to the Hungarian "Szilárd", a name that means "solid" in Hungarian . Despite having a religious background, Szilard became an agnostic . From 1908 to 1916 he attended Föreáliskola (high school) in Budapest's 6th District . Showing an early interest in physics and
528-712: A cobalt-60 treatment that he had designed. He helped found the Salk Institute for Biological Studies , where he became a resident fellow. Szilard founded Council for a Livable World in 1962 to deliver "the sweet voice of reason" about nuclear weapons to Congress, the White House, and the American public. He died in his sleep of a heart attack in 1964. He was born as Leó Spitz in Budapest , Kingdom of Hungary , on February 11, 1898. His middle-class Jewish parents, Lajos (Louis) Spitz,
660-406: A particle accelerator they had constructed. Rutherford went on to say: We might in these processes obtain very much more energy than the proton supplied, but on the average we could not expect to obtain energy in this way. It was a very poor and inefficient way of producing energy, and anyone who looked for a source of power in the transformation of the atoms was talking moonshine. But the subject
792-691: A radon – beryllium source, they found that the heavier radioactive isotopes of iodine separated from the compound. Thus, they had discovered a means of isotope separation. This method became known as the Szilard–Chalmers effect , and was widely used in the preparation of medical isotopes. He also attempted unsuccessfully to create a nuclear chain reaction using beryllium by bombarding it with X-rays . Szilard visited Béla and Rose and her husband Roland (Lorand) Detre, in Switzerland in September 1937. After
924-628: A book describing continuing explosives which Wells termed "atomic bombs"; Szilard wrote in his memoirs the book had made "a very great impression on me." When Szilard assigned his patent to the Admiralty to keep the news from reaching the notice of the wider scientific community, he wrote, "Knowing what this [a chain reaction] would mean—and I knew it because I had read H. G. Wells—I did not want this patent to become public." In early 1934, Szilard began working at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London. Working with
1056-519: A born bachelor. In 1949 Szilard wrote a short story titled " My Trial as a War Criminal " in which he imagined himself on trial for crimes against humanity after the United States lost a war with the Soviet Union . He publicly sounded the alarm against the possible development of salted thermonuclear bombs , explaining in a University of Chicago Round Table radio program on February 26, 1950, that
1188-659: A bungalow on the property of the Hotel del Charro . On May 30, 1964, he died there in his sleep of a heart attack ; when Trude awoke, she was unable to revive him. His remains were cremated. His papers are in the library at the University of California, San Diego . In February 2014, the library announced that it received funding from the National Historical Publications and Records Commission to digitize its collection of his papers, ranging from 1938 to 1998. Szilard
1320-482: A careful design was called for to minimize losses. Szilard worked up various designs for a nuclear reactor . "If the uranium project could have been run on ideas alone," Wigner later remarked, "no one but Leo Szilard would have been needed." At its December 6, 1941, meeting, the National Defense Research Committee resolved to proceed with an all-out effort to produce atomic bombs. This decision
1452-499: A county administrator, who acts on behalf of the legislature, the legislature must maintain ultimate control over the actions of the administrator. Many, but not all, charter counties have an elected executive who is independent of the legislature; the exact form of government is defined in the County Charter. In New York, each city is a highly autonomous incorporated area that, with the exceptions of New York City and Geneva ,
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#17330850174941584-627: A fellow of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in the La Jolla community of San Diego, California, which he had helped create. Szilard founded Council for a Livable World in 1962 to deliver "the sweet voice of reason" about nuclear weapons to Congress, the White House, and the American public. He was appointed a non-resident fellow there in July 1963, and became a resident fellow on April 1, 1964, after moving to San Diego in February. With Trude, he lived in
1716-781: A formal title or position. He encountered John R. Dunning , who invited him to speak about his research at an afternoon seminar in January 1939. That same month, Niels Bohr brought news with him to New York that nuclear fission had accidentally been observed by chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin on December 19, 1938. Hahn and Strassman's misunderstanding of their observation would be corrected theoretically and thus explained by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , as Meitner had known of Szilard's theory back in 1933 and after re-conducting
1848-457: A laboratory for three months. To fund his experiment, he borrowed $ 2,000 from a fellow inventor, Benjamin Liebowitz. He wired Frederick Lindemann at Oxford and asked him to send a beryllium cylinder. He persuaded Walter Zinn to become his collaborator and hired Semyon Krewer to investigate processes for manufacturing pure uranium and graphite . Szilard and Zinn conducted a simple experiment on
1980-631: A land-use classification for private land under its Adirondack Park Land Use and Development Plan (APLUDP). The APLUDP extends the boundaries for its classification of hamlets "well beyond established settlements" to allow for growth. In New York, a village is an incorporated area. About 85% of villages fall within a single town. Villages in the State of New York are classified by the Census Bureau as incorporated places . Like all municipal corporations, villages have clearly defined legal boundaries. A village
2112-407: A larger experiment using 500 pounds (230 kg) of uranium. To maximize the chance of fission, they needed a neutron moderator to slow the neutrons down. Hydrogen was a known moderator, so they used water. The results were disappointing. It became apparent that hydrogen slowed neutrons down, but also absorbed them, leaving fewer for the chain reaction. Szilard then suggested Fermi use carbon , in
2244-525: A long-standing puzzle in the philosophy of thermal and statistical physics known as Maxwell's demon , a thought experiment originated by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell . The problem was thought to be insoluble, but in tackling it Szilard recognized the connection between thermodynamics and information theory . Szilard was appointed as assistant to von Laue at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1924. In 1927 he finished his habilitation and became
2376-567: A lot of money. Szilard drafted a confidential letter to the President, Franklin D. Roosevelt , explaining the possibility of nuclear weapons, warning of the German nuclear weapon project , and encouraging the development of a program that could result in their creation. With the help of Wigner and Edward Teller , he approached his old friend and collaborator Einstein in August 1939, and persuaded him to sign
2508-417: A mayor and (usually) four trustees. The board is responsible for approving mayoral appointments, managing village finances and property, and approving a budget. The mayor, who is generally the chief executive of the village, may vote in all business before the board and must vote to break a tie. The mayor generally does not possess veto power, unless this is provided for by local law. Administrative duties of
2640-569: A means of isotope separation known as the Szilard–Chalmers effect . Foreseeing another war in Europe, Szilard moved to the United States in 1938, where he worked with Enrico Fermi and Walter Zinn on means of creating a nuclear chain reaction. He was present when this was achieved within the Chicago Pile-1 on December 2, 1942. He worked for the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory at
2772-752: A meeting in 1962 with Victor F. Weisskopf , James Watson and John Kendrew . When the European Molecular Biology Laboratory was established, the library was named The Szilard Library and the library stamp features dolphins. Other honors that he received included the Atoms for Peace Award in 1959, and the Humanist of the Year in 1960. A lunar crater on the far side of the Moon was named after him in 1970. The Leo Szilard Lectureship Award , established in 1974,
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#17330850174942904-456: A new kind of nuclear weapon that might annihilate mankind. His inventions, discoveries, and contributions related to biological science are also equally important, they include the discovery of feedback inhibition and the invention of the chemostat . According to Theodore Puck and Philip I. Marcus , Szilard gave essential advice which made the earliest cloning of the human cell a reality. Diagnosed with bladder cancer in 1960, he underwent
3036-524: A nuclear chain reaction in a laboratory at Columbia University ) and Edward Teller (both prompted by Niels Bohr ), and dictated the famous Letter to President Roosevelt , alerting him to the new developments in nuclear physics and hinting that the Germans might be working on an atomic bomb, urging him to launch his own program. The letter is widely credited with setting in motion the Manhattan Project ,
3168-561: A proficiency in mathematics, in 1916 he won the Eötvös Prize, a national prize for mathematics. With World War I raging in Europe, Szilard received notice on January 22, 1916, that he had been drafted into the 5th Fortress Regiment, but he was able to continue his studies. He enrolled as an engineering student at the Palatine Joseph Technical University , which he entered in September 1916. The following year he joined
3300-456: A rainstorm, he and his siblings spent an afternoon in an unsuccessful attempt to build a prototype collapsible umbrella. One reason for the visit was that he had decided to emigrate to the United States, as he believed that another war in Europe was inevitable and imminent. He reached New York on the liner RMS Franconia on January 2, 1938. Over the next few months, he moved from place to place, conducting research with Maurice Goldhaber at
3432-764: A result, Szilard never received the Nobel Prize , but Ernest Lawrence was awarded it for the cyclotron in 1939, and Ernst Ruska for the electron microscope in 1986. Szilard received German citizenship in 1930, but was already uneasy about the political situation in Europe. When Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933 , Szilard urged his family and friends to flee Europe while they still could. He moved to England, and transferred his savings of £1,595 (£143,000 today) from his bank in Zürich to one in London . He lived in hotels where lodging and meals cost about £5.5
3564-656: A scientist and the director of the National Bureau of Standards . Its first meeting on October 21, 1939, was attended by Szilard, Teller, and Wigner, who persuaded the Army and Navy to provide $ 6,000 for Szilard to purchase supplies for experiments—in particular, more graphite. A 1940 Army intelligence report on Fermi and Szilard, prepared when the United States had not yet entered World War II, expressed reservations about both. While it contained some errors of fact about Szilard, it correctly noted his dire prediction that Germany would win
3696-529: A sufficiently big thermonuclear bomb rigged with specific but common materials, might annihilate mankind. His comments, as well as those of Hans Bethe , Harrison Brown , and Frederick Seitz (the three other scientists who participated in the program), were attacked by the Atomic Energy Commission 's former Chairman David Lilienthal , and the criticisms plus a response from Szilard were published. Time compared Szilard to Chicken Little while
3828-427: A time when they had never been together for more than a few days before. Single people living together was frowned upon in the conservative United States at the time and, after they were discovered by one of her students, Szilard began to worry that she might lose her job. Their relationship remained a long-distance one, and they kept news of their marriage quiet. Many of his friends were shocked, having considered Szilard
3960-597: A town; 35.9% were living in a town but outside a village. Whereas cities and villages can cross county boundaries, each town in New York is completely contained within a single county. New York towns are classified by statute as being a town of the first class or a town of the second class . Additionally, a town of the first class can further be classified as a suburban town upon meeting certain criteria. Originally, towns of different classes possessed different powers. Since 1964, all towns, regardless of classification, have had
4092-473: A uniform statewide Village Law (twelve villages still operate under charters issued by the state legislature prior to a revision of the State Constitution in 1874 that forbade chartering villages). Also, villages are part of a town (or towns; some villages cross town borders), with residents who pay taxes to and receive services from the town. Cities are neither part of nor subordinate to towns except for
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4224-504: A village becomes a city, the Legislature requires clear evidence, usually in the form of a locally drafted charter, that the community in question seeks to incorporate as a city. The forms of government cities can have are council–manager, strong mayor–council, weak mayor–council or commission. Forty-six cities, the majority, use the mayor–council form. The City of New York is a special case. The state legislature reorganized government in
4356-482: A village or town but will perform some of the functions of the other form. Villages remain part of the towns in which they are located; village residents pay both town and village taxes, and vote in both town and village elections. Towns can contain several hamlets and communities. If the United States Postal Service (USPS) has a post office in a hamlet it often will use the name of that hamlet, as will
4488-553: A volunteer in a Berlin asylum organization for refugee children and in 1932 moved to India to continue this work. Szilard married Trude Weiss, a physician, in a civil ceremony in New York on October 13, 1951. They had known each other since 1929 and had frequently corresponded and visited each other ever since. Weiss took up a teaching position at the University of Colorado in April 1950, and Szilard began staying with her in Denver for weeks at
4620-592: A week. For those less fortunate, he helped found the Academic Assistance Council , an organization dedicated to helping refugee scholars find new jobs, and persuaded the Royal Society to provide accommodation for it at Burlington House . He enlisted the help of academics such as Harald Bohr , G. H. Hardy , Archibald Hill and Frederick G. Donnan . By the outbreak of World War II in 1939, it had helped to find places for over 2,500 refugee scholars. On
4752-515: A young physicist on the hospital staff, Thomas A. Chalmers, he began studying radioactive isotopes for medical purposes. It was known that bombarding elements with neutrons could produce either heavier isotopes of an element, or a heavier element, a phenomenon known as the Fermi Effect after its discoverer, the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi . When they bombarded ethyl iodide with neutrons produced by
4884-423: Is Sherrill, New York , with just 3,071 inhabitants in 2010. The smallest city by area is Mechanicville, New York , which covers 0.91 sq mi (2.4 km ) (of which 0.08 sq mi (0.2 km ) is water). Some places containing the word "city" in their name are not cities. Examples include Johnson City , Garden City , and New City . Several cities, such as Albany, are divided into wards for
5016-408: Is a municipality that provides services to the residents, services that may or may not include garbage collection, management of cemeteries, street and highway maintenance, street lighting, and building codes. Some villages provide their own police and other municipal services. Villages have less autonomy than cities. While cities are not subject to a town's jurisdiction, villages legally remain part of
5148-402: Is commonplace to change boundaries and define new CDPs for each census. The Census Bureau formerly referred to CDPs as "unincorporated places" from 1950 through the 1970 decennial censuses. The term CDP was first used for the 1980 census , and minimum population criteria for CDPs were dropped with the 2000 census . Though the term "hamlet" is not defined under New York law, many people in
5280-456: Is contained within one county. Cities in New York are classified by the U.S. Census Bureau as incorporated places. They provide almost all services to their residents and have the highest degree of home rule and taxing jurisdiction over their residents. The main difference between a city and a village is that cities are organized and governed according to their charters , which can differ widely among cities, while most villages are subject to
5412-517: Is given in his honor by the American Physical Society . In 1960, Szilard was diagnosed with bladder cancer . He underwent cobalt therapy at New York's Memorial Sloan-Kettering Hospital using a cobalt 60 treatment regimen that his doctors gave him a high degree of control over. A second round of treatment with an increased dose followed in 1962. The higher dose did its job and his cancer never returned. Szilard spent his last years as
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5544-548: Is in three towns and two counties. Five towns are coterminous with their single village and have a coterminous town-village form of government. Despite their names, Greenwich Village , the East Village , and Queens Village are not villages, but neighborhoods of the City of New York . A borough is one of the five major administrative divisions of the consolidated City of New York . Boroughs do not currently exist elsewhere in
5676-408: Is the oldest English-style house in the village. In fact, it is one of the best surviving examples of English domestic architecture in the United States, and it has been named a National Historic Landmark . Famous 18th century residents include political figure Parker Wickham and his nephew John Wickham . Cutchogue is also the birthplace of composer Douglas Moore (1893–1969). In 1854, Cutchogue
5808-402: Is the state. All of them have their own governments, sometimes with no paid employees, that provide local services. Centers of population that are not incorporated and have no government or local services are designated hamlets . Whether a municipality is defined as a borough, city, town, or village is determined not by population or land area, but rather on the form of government selected by
5940-425: Is then voted upon by the qualified voters living in the proposed village only. Some villages have fewer than 500 residents, having incorporated before the present population requirement or fallen below the old 500-resident threshold after incorporation. A village may also be dissolved, returning all government control to the town level. The process of dissolution can be initiated by the village board itself, or upon
6072-406: Is water. The town of Webb ( Herkimer County ) has the greatest land area, at 451 sq mi (1,170 km ). The smallest town, Green Island ( Albany County ), covers 0.7 sq mi (1.8 km ). The town of Hempstead ( Nassau County ) has about 760,000 people (2010 census), making it more populous than any city in the state except New York City . Red House ( Cattaraugus County ),
6204-639: The Patents and Designs Act (July 1949, UK) . Richard Rhodes described Szilard's moment of inspiration: In London, where Southampton Row passes Russell Square , across from the British Museum in Bloomsbury, Leo Szilard waited irritably one gray Depression morning for the stoplight to change. A trace of rain had fallen during the night; Tuesday, September 12, 1933, dawned cool, humid and dull. Drizzling rain would begin again in early afternoon. When Szilard told
6336-585: The Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. He left Hungary for Germany in 1919, enrolling at Technische Hochschule (Institute of Technology) in Berlin-Charlottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin ), but became bored with engineering and transferred to Friedrich Wilhelm University , where he studied physics. He wrote his doctoral thesis on Maxwell's demon , a long-standing puzzle in the philosophy of thermal and statistical physics . Szilard
6468-522: The Austro-Hungarian Army 's 4th Mountain Artillery Regiment, but immediately was sent to Budapest as an officer candidate. He rejoined his regiment in May 1918 but in September, before being sent to the front, he fell ill with Spanish Influenza and was returned home for hospitalization. Later he was informed that his regiment had been nearly annihilated in battle, so the illness probably saved his life. He
6600-537: The Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of New York . Articles VIII (titled "Local Finances") and IX (titled "Local Government", but commonly referred to as the "Home Rule" article) of the state constitution establish the rights and responsibilities of the municipal governments. The New York State Constitution provides for democratically elected legislative bodies for counties, cities, towns and villages. These legislative bodies are granted
6732-464: The Szilard engine and became important in the history of attempts to understand Maxwell's demon. The paper is also the first equation of negative entropy and information. As such, it established Szilard as one of the founders of information theory, but he did not publish it until 1929, and did not pursue it further. Cybernetics , via the work of Norbert Wiener and Claude E. Shannon , would later develop
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#17330850174946864-439: The United States Census Bureau as "a statistical entity defined for each decennial census according to Census Bureau guidelines, comprising a densely settled concentration of population" that is not part of a city or a village "but is locally identified by a name." CDPs may cross town and county borders. CDPs are defined collaboratively by state and local officials and the Census Bureau. They are defined for each census, and it
6996-506: The University of Chicago on aspects of nuclear reactor design, where he was the chief physicist. He drafted the Szilard petition advocating a non-lethal demonstration of the atomic bomb, but the Interim Committee chose to use them in a military strike instead. Together with Enrico Fermi , he applied for a nuclear reactor patent in 1944. He publicly sounded the alarm against the possible development of salted thermonuclear bombs ,
7128-587: The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign , and then the University of Chicago , University of Michigan and the University of Rochester , where he undertook experiments with indium but again failed to initiate a chain reaction. In early 1938, Szilard would settle down at "what would become a haven for much of the rest of his life" when he took a room at the King's Crown Hotel in New York City, being near Columbia University where he now conducted research without
7260-464: The cyclotron . He was also the first person to conceive the idea of the electron microscope , and submitted the earliest patent for one in 1928. Between 1926 and 1930, he worked with Einstein to develop the Einstein refrigerator , notable because it had no moving parts. He did not build all of these devices, or publish these ideas in scientific journals , and so credit for them often went to others. As
7392-571: The nuclear chain reaction in 1933, and patented the idea in 1936. In late 1939 he wrote the letter for Albert Einstein 's signature that resulted in the Manhattan Project that built the atomic bomb , and then in 1944 wrote the Szilard petition asking President Truman to demonstrate the bomb without dropping it on civilians. According to György Marx , he was one of the Hungarian scientists known as The Martians . Szilard initially attended Palatine Joseph Technical University in Budapest , but his engineering studies were interrupted by service in
7524-612: The AEC dismissed his ideas, but scientists debated whether it was feasible or not; the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists commissioned a study by James R. Arnold , who concluded that it was. Physicist W. H. Clark suggested that a 50 megaton cobalt bomb did have the potential to produce sufficient long-lasting radiation to be a doomsday weapon , in theory, but was of the view that, even then, "enough people might find refuge to wait out
7656-543: The American state of New York . The state is divided into boroughs , counties, cities, towns, and villages. (The only boroughs, the five boroughs of New York City, have the same boundaries as their respective counties.) They are municipal corporations , chartered (created) by the New York State Legislature , as under the New York State Constitution the only body that can create governmental units
7788-446: The CDP. The population density was 351.7 inhabitants per square mile (135.8/km). There were 1,680 housing units at an average density of 207.4 per square mile (80.1/km). The racial makeup of the community was 93.86% White , 2.42% African American , 0.04% Native American , 0.53% Asian , 1.72% from other races , and 1.44% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.69% of
7920-407: The German nuclear researchers did, that graphite was unsuitable for use as a neutron moderator. Like the German researchers, Fermi and Szilard still believed that enormous quantities of uranium would be required for an atomic bomb , and therefore concentrated on producing a controlled chain reaction. Fermi determined that a fissioning uranium atom produced 1.73 neutrons on average. It was enough, but
8052-542: The U.S. Census Bureau as minor civil divisions . Like New Jersey and southern New England , all of New York is incorporated; all residents who do not live in a city or on an Indian reservation live in a town. Towns provide or arrange for the primary functions of local government. While some provide most municipal services for all town residents and selected services for residents of villages, some provide little more than road maintenance. There were 933 towns in New York. As of 2000 , 45.8% of state residents were living in
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#17330850174948184-491: The US government effort that built the first atomic bomb . When Szilárd first explained the concept of a nuclear chain reaction to him, Einstein gave the famous reply, "Daran habe ich gar nicht gedacht!" ("I really never thought of that before"). Hamlet (New York) See also: [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The administrative divisions of New York are the various units of government that provide local services in
8316-649: The University of Chicago. Compton laid out an ambitious plan to achieve a chain reaction by January 1943, start manufacturing plutonium in nuclear reactors by January 1944, and produce an atomic bomb by January 1945. In January 1942, Szilard joined the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago as a research associate, and later the chief physicist. Alvin Weinberg noted that Szilard served as the project "gadfly", asking all
8448-451: The area in the 1890s in an effort to consolidate. Other cities, villages, and towns were annexed to become the " City of Greater New York ", (an unofficial term, the new city retained the name of New York), a process basically completed in 1898. At the time of consolidation, Queens County was split. Its western towns joined the city, leaving three towns that were never part of the consolidation plan as part of Queens County but not part of
8580-495: The area of the proposed village must have at least 1,500 inhabitants and not be part of an existing city or village. Additionally, the proposed village can be no more than 5 square miles (13 km ) in area unless its boundaries are to be coterminous with a school, fire, improvement or other district, or the entire town. The process of incorporation begins with a petition by either 20% of residents or owners of 50% of assessed real property. If deemed legally sufficient, incorporation
8712-407: The average family size was 2.93. In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 21.5% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 24.7% from 25 to 44, 28.3% from 45 to 64, and 20.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.9 males. The median income for a household in the community
8844-427: The cities of New York and Albany city charters, which were recognized by the first State Constitution in 1777. All other cities have been established by act of the state legislature and have been granted a charter. Cities have been granted the power to revise their charters or adopt new ones. There are no minimum population or area requirements in order to become a city. While there is no defined process for how and when
8976-473: The city of Sherrill , which for some purposes is treated as if it were a village of the town of Vernon . Some cities are completely surrounded by a town, typically of the same name. There are sixty-two cities in the state. As of 2000 , 54.1% of state residents were living in a city; 42.2% were living in New York City; 11.9% were living in one of the other 61 cities. In 1686, the English colonial governor granted
9108-408: The community has a total area of 10.2 square miles (26.3 km), of which 9.7 square miles (25.2 km) is land and 0.42 square miles (1.1 km), or 4.2%, is water. The name Cutchogue is derived from an Algonquin word meaning "principal place". Many of the local Native Americans lived at Fort Corchaug before English-American settlers began arriving in 1640. The Old House , built ca. 1699,
9240-594: The concept into a general theory in the 1940s and 1950s—though, during the time of the Cybernetics Meetings , John Von Neumann pointed out that Szilard first equated information with entropy in his review of Wiener's Cybernetics book . Throughout his time in Berlin, Szilard worked on numerous technical inventions. In 1928 he submitted a patent application for the linear accelerator , not knowing of Gustav Ising 's prior 1924 journal article and Rolf Widerøe 's operational device, and in 1929 applied for one for
9372-616: The concept of the neutron-induced nuclear chain reaction in June 1934, which was granted in March 1936. Under section 30 of the Patents and Designs Act (1907, UK), Szilard was able to assign the patent to the British Admiralty to ensure its secrecy, which he did. Consequently, his patent was not published until 1949 when the relevant parts of the Patents and Designs Act (1907, UK) were repealed by
9504-601: The consolidated city. Each borough individually elects a borough president and used to elect two at-large city council members, in addition to those elected based on each borough's population. The borough presidents once wielded considerable power as members of the New York City Board of Estimate , but the position is now largely ceremonial and advisory. Boroughs function as counties for certain purposes, but have no county government. The five New York City district attorneys , however, are still elected by county (for example,
9636-614: The county also publish maps that conflict both in the number of hamlets and their boundaries. Nevertheless, all land not within a village is administered by the town. Most of the rest of New York's hamlets, however, have less well-defined boundaries, and most towns have areas that are not considered to be a part of any hamlet. The New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) puts hamlet names on rectangular green signs with white lettering at roadside locations of its choosing. The NYSDOT and local governments also provide community identification signs on some scenic byways to be placed at
9768-587: The county boundaries—each have a Borough Board made up of the Borough President, the borough's district council members, and the chairpersons of the borough's community boards. A mayor serves as the city's chief executive officer. The most populous and largest city in the state is New York City , with a population of over 8.5 million inhabitants and comprising just over 300 sq mi (777.00 km ) of land (468.87 sq mi (1,214.368 km ) total area, which includes water). The least populous city
9900-449: The development of the Einstein refrigerator . After Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany in 1933, Szilard urged his family and friends to flee Europe while they still could. He moved to England, where he helped found the Academic Assistance Council , an organization dedicated to helping refugee scholars find new jobs. While in England, Szilard, alongside Thomas A. Chalmers, discovered
10032-504: The district attorney for Brooklyn is called the Kings County District Attorney). Le%C3%B3 Szil%C3%A1rd Leo Szilard ( / ˈ s ɪ l ɑːr d / ; Hungarian : Szilárd Leó [ˈsilaːrd ˈlɛoː] ; born Leó Spitz ; February 11, 1898 – May 30, 1964) was a Hungarian-born physicist, biologist and inventor who made numerous important discoveries in nuclear physics and the biological sciences. He conceived
10164-434: The embarrassing questions. Szilard provided important insights. While uranium-238 did not fission readily with slow, moderated neutrons, it might still fission with the fast neutrons produced by fission. This effect was small but crucial. Szilard made suggestions that improved the uranium canning process, and worked with David Gurinsky and Ed Creutz on a method for recovering uranium from its salts. A vexing question at
10296-411: The end he sold his patent to the government for reimbursement of his expenses, some $ 15,416, plus the standard $ 1 fee. He continued to work with Fermi and Wigner on nuclear reactor design and is credited with coining the term " breeder reactor ". With an enduring passion for the preservation of human life and political freedom, Szilard hoped that the US government would not use nuclear weapons, but that
10428-493: The end, Wigner's plan to use ordinary water as a coolant won out. When the coolant issue became too heated, Compton and the director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr. , moved to dismiss Szilard, who was still a German citizen, but the Secretary of War , Henry L. Stimson , refused to do so. Szilard was therefore present on December 2, 1942, when the first man-made self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction
10560-690: The executive branch. All town justices were originally part of a town's board. Today, justices belong to a separate judicial branch known as Town Court or Justice Court, part of New York's Justice Court system. A town may contain one or more villages. Many towns have no villages. Five towns are coterminous with their single village and share the same name: Green Island in Albany County ; East Rochester in Monroe County ; and Scarsdale , Harrison , and Mount Kisco in Westchester County . A sixth,
10692-449: The experiment themselves, confirmed Szilard's theory to have been correct all along. When Szilard found out about it on a visit to Wigner at Princeton University , he immediately realized that uranium might be the element capable of sustaining a chain reaction. Unable to convince Fermi that this was the case, Szilard set out on his own. He obtained permission from the head of the physics department at Columbia, George B. Pegram , to use
10824-459: The flashes. We watched them for a little while and then we switched everything off and went home." He understood the implications and consequences of this discovery, though. "That night, there was very little doubt in my mind that the world was headed for grief". While they had demonstrated that the fission of uranium produced more neutrons than it consumed, this was still not a chain reaction. Szilard persuaded Fermi and Herbert L. Anderson to try
10956-420: The form of graphite. He felt he would need about 50 tonnes (49 long tons; 55 short tons) (50.8 metric ton) of graphite and 5 tonnes (4.9 long tons; 5.5 short tons) of uranium. As a back-up plan, Szilard also considered where he might find a few tons of heavy water ; deuterium would not absorb neutrons like ordinary hydrogen but would have the similar value as a moderator. Such quantities of material would require
11088-535: The general provisions of the County Law. Although all counties have a certain latitude to govern themselves, "charter counties" are afforded greater home rule powers. The charter counties are Albany , Broome , Chautauqua , Chemung , Dutchess , Erie , Herkimer , Monroe , Nassau , Oneida , Onondaga , Orange , Putnam , Rensselaer , Rockland , Schenectady , Suffolk , Tompkins , Ulster , and Westchester . Sixteen counties are governed through an assembly with
11220-460: The growth rate of bacteria. They discovered feedback inhibition , an important factor in processes such as growth and metabolism. Szilard gave essential advice to Theodore Puck and Philip I. Marcus for their first cloning of a human cell in 1955. Before his relationship with his later wife Gertrud "Trude" Weiss, Leo Szilard's life partner in the period 1927–1934 was the kindergarten teacher and opera singer Gerda Philipsborn , who also worked as
11352-404: The identification and mitigation of a key graphite impurity (boron) through a joint collaboration with graphite suppliers. Szilard became a naturalized citizen of the United States in March 1943. The Army offered Szilard $ 25,000 for his inventions before November 1940, when he officially joined the project. He refused. He was the co-holder, with Fermi, of the patent on the nuclear reactor. In
11484-458: The least populous, has 38 permanent residents (2010 census). The use of "town" in a community's name is irrespective of municipal status. Elizabethtown , Germantown and Stephentown are towns. Cooperstown , home of the Baseball Hall of Fame , is a village, Jamestown and Middletown are cities, and Levittown is an unincorporated hamlet. A census-designated place (CDP) is defined by
11616-424: The letter, lending his fame to the proposal. The Einstein–Szilárd letter resulted in the establishment of research into nuclear fission by the US government, and ultimately to the creation of the Manhattan Project . Roosevelt gave the letter to his aide, Brigadier General Edwin M. "Pa" Watson with the instruction: "Pa, this requires action!" An Advisory Committee on Uranium was formed under Lyman J. Briggs ,
11748-572: The limits. Based on the ZIP Code, the United States Postal Service (USPS) identifies the correct location for mail delivery. The New York State Gazetteer , published by the New York State Department of Health in 1995, includes a list of hamlets in the state. The criteria used for inclusion in the Gazetteer are not stated. The Adirondack Park Agency also uses the term "hamlet", though as
11880-513: The local fire department or elementary school. Businesses may also use the name of a hamlet as part of their name. The United States Census Bureau will, with consideration from the town, designate a census-designated place (CDP) that may use the name of one or more hamlets, though boundaries may differ from what is used by the ZIP code, local fire department, etc. Towns in New York may be further subdivided into wards, although as of 2017 , only fifteen of
12012-473: The mayor include enforcing laws and supervising employees. A village may also have a full-time village manager who performs these administrative duties instead of the mayor. In 2007, sixty-seven villages had such a manager. Some villages have their own village justice, while others utilize the justice of the town or towns in which they are located. While most villages are subject to a uniform statewide Village Law, twelve villages operate under charters issued by
12144-561: The mere threat of such weapons would force Germany and Japan to surrender. He also worried about the long-term implications of nuclear weapons, predicting that their use by the United States would start a nuclear arms race with the USSR. He drafted the Szilárd petition advocating that the atomic bomb be demonstrated to the enemy, and used only if the enemy did not then surrender. The Interim Committee instead chose to use atomic bombs against cities over
12276-611: The mid-19th century; the New York City Council is currently elected from special districts, which are allowed to cross borough lines. New York City has a unique system of divisions, some of which possess governmental power, see Divisions unique to New York City . In New York, a town is a municipal corporation, and is the major division of each county (excluding the five boroughs that comprise New York City ), very similar to townships in other states such as Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. Towns in New York are classified by
12408-461: The morning of September 12, 1933, Szilard read an article in The Times summarizing a speech given by Lord Rutherford in which Rutherford rejected the feasibility of using atomic energy for practical purposes. The speech remarked specifically on the recent 1932 work of his students, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton , in "splitting" lithium into alpha particles , by bombardment with protons from
12540-448: The new Borough of Queens. (A small portion of the Town of Hempstead was itself annexed, also.) The next year (1899), the three eastern towns of Queens County separated to become Nassau County . The city today consists of the entire area of five counties (named New York, Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond). While these counties have no county government, boroughs—with boundaries coterminous with
12672-409: The one that had occurred in lithium, and could be produced themselves by the same reaction, energy might be obtained with little input, since the reaction would be self-sustaining. He wanted to carry out a systematic survey of all 92 then-known elements in order to find one that can allow the chain reaction, at an estimated cost of $ 8000, but he did not for lack of funds. Szilard filed for a patent on
12804-408: The population. There were 1,120 households, out of which 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.3% were married couples living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.4% were non-families. 25.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and
12936-432: The power and fiscal capacity to provide an array of local government services. Such services generally include law enforcement and public safety, social and health services (such as Medicaid ), and education (special needs and community colleges). Every county outside of New York City has a county seat , which is the location of county government. Nineteen counties operate under county charters, while 38 operate under
13068-480: The power of a board of supervisors , composed of the supervisors of its constituent towns and cities. In most of these counties, each supervisor's vote is weighted in accordance with the town's population in order to abide by the U.S. Supreme Court mandate of " one person, one vote ". Other counties have legislative districts of equal population, which may cross municipal borders; these counties may also have an elected County Executive. Most counties in New York do not use
13200-493: The power to enact local laws as needed in order to provide services to their citizens and fulfill their various obligations. The county is the primary administrative division of New York. There are sixty-two counties in the state. Five of the counties are boroughs of the City of New York and do not have functioning county governments. While originally created as subdivisions of the state meant to carry out state functions, counties are now considered municipal corporations with
13332-474: The protests of Szilard and other scientists. Afterwards, he lobbied for amendments to the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 that placed nuclear energy under civilian control. In 1946, Szilard secured a research professorship at the University of Chicago that allowed him to research in biology and the social sciences. He teamed up with Aaron Novick , a chemist who had worked at the Metallurgical Laboratory during
13464-522: The purposes of municipal representation. Each ward elects one member to the city's legislative body, and the wards are redistricted roughly every ten years. These divisions can go by other names by city; in Buffalo they are known as districts . These divisions can either be numbered or named. New York City was divided into wards at various times in its history between 1683 and 1938, although they were gradually replaced by Assembly and Senate districts starting in
13596-637: The radioactivity and emerge to begin again." In 1961 he proposed the idea of "Mined Cities", an early example of mutually assured destruction . Szilard published a book of short stories, The Voice of the Dolphins (1961), in which he dealt with the moral and ethical issues raised by the Cold War and his own role in the development of atomic weapons. The title story described an international biology research laboratory in Central Europe. This became reality after
13728-695: The residents and approved by the New York State Legislature. Each type of local government is granted specific home rule powers by the New York State Constitution. There are still occasional changes as a village becomes a city, or a village dissolves (stops existing), each of which requires legislative action. New York also has various corporate entities that provide local services and have their own administrative structures (governments), such as school and fire districts. These are not found in all counties. Almost every piece of land in
13860-728: The roadside boundaries of hamlets, as decided by the sign provider. Many towns have special zoning or planning districts and planning strategies for their hamlets, and many places welcome signs at the gateways to the hamlets. Some hamlets are former villages that have dissolved their incorporation ( Old Forge in Herkimer County ; Rosendale , in Ulster County ; and Andes in Delaware County , for example). Notwithstanding hamlets are not cities or towns, many of them are called out in formal addresses for those residents residing within
13992-450: The same legal powers as were once available only to suburban towns. Even so, towns of different classifications continue to have organizational differences and certain conditions that must be met before a town's classification changes. The town board serves as the legislative branch. The board is composed of one elected town supervisor (or chief executive officer in suburban towns) and a specific number of elected council persons; towns of
14124-575: The second class generally have two but may have four council persons, whereas towns of the first class generally have four but can have two or six. The supervisor presides over the board, voting on all matters but not possessing veto or tie-breaking power. Certain towns operate under a town manager form of government, creating an executive branch in the town government, as permitted by legislation enacted in 1976. As such, some supervisors have additional authority or executive powers, whereas some towns have town managers or chief executive officers who serve as
14256-459: The seventh floor of Pupin Hall at Columbia, using a radium–beryllium source to bombard uranium with neutrons. Initially nothing registered on the oscilloscope , but then Zinn realized that it was not plugged in. On doing so, they discovered significant neutron multiplication in natural uranium, proving that a chain reaction might be possible. Szilard later described the event: "We turned the switch and saw
14388-456: The state has more than 3,400 active local governments and more than 4,200 taxing jurisdictions. Counties and incorporated municipal governments (also known as "general purpose units of local government"; i.e., cities, towns and villages) in the State of New York have been granted broad home rule powers enabling them to provide services to their residents and to regulate the quality of life within their jurisdictions. They do so while adhering to
14520-404: The state is part of a city or town, which is part of one county. The exceptions are the city of Geneva ; New York City ; and ten Indian reservations . As of 2009 , New York has 62 counties (including New York City's five boroughs ), which are subdivided into 933 towns and 61 cities (including Geneva in both Ontario and Seneca counties, but excluding New York City and Sherrill ). In total,
14652-635: The state legislature prior to 1874. Before a revision to the State Constitution in that year, villages were formed by the state legislature through granting of charters. Many villages reincorporated, dumping their charters in favor of the Village Law. The villages that retain their charters are Alexander , Carthage , Catskill , Cooperstown , Deposit , Fredonia , Ilion , Mohawk , Ossining , Owego , Port Chester , and Waterford . These villages must still comply with those aspects of Village Law that are not inconsistent with their charters. To be incorporated,
14784-580: The state use the term hamlet to refer to a community within a town that is not incorporated as a village but is identified by a name, i.e. an unincorporated community . A hamlet often has a name corresponding to the name of a local school district , post office , or fire district. Because a hamlet has no government of its own, it depends upon the town or towns that contain it for municipal services and government. Because they do not have governments, hamlets have no clear boundaries . Suffolk County publishes maps that give hamlet boundaries, but towns within
14916-423: The state's 932 towns used this system. In towns operating under the ward system, citizens vote for councilmen who represent a specific area (ward) of the town, as opposed to the at-large councilmen elected in the majority of the state's towns. Towns vary in size and population. The largest town by area is Brookhaven ( Suffolk County ), which covers 531.5 sq mi (1,377 km ), but more than half of that
15048-478: The state. Each of the five boroughs of the city is coextensive with a county of the state of New York. Under New York State's General Municipal Law , a borough results when the towns, villages and cities in a county merge with the county itself. This occurred in 1898 when New York City merged with surrounding counties, cities and towns to form its present configuration. The five boroughs are: The boroughs were originally intended to retain some local governance in
15180-489: The story later he never mentioned his destination that morning. He may have had none; he often walked to think. In any case another destination intervened. The stoplight changed to green. Szilard stepped off the curb. As he crossed the street time cracked open before him and he saw a way to the future, death into the world and all our woe, the shape of things to come . Prior to conceiving the nuclear chain reaction, in 1932 Szilard had read H. G. Wells ' The World Set Free ,
15312-508: The submission of a proper petition to the board. The village board must produce a "dissolution plan" that settles specific matters, such as the village's debts, its employees and property, and the financial impact dissolution would have on village and non-village town residents. This plan is voted upon by village voters only. About 15% of villages cross other municipal boundaries. More than 70 villages are located in two or more towns. Seven villages are in two counties. The village of Saranac Lake
15444-456: The summers of 1938 and 1939 he rented a cottage on Old Cove Road, now called West Cove Road, on Nassau Point, and spent many hours alone in a little sailboat he called Tineff ( Yiddish for "worthless"). Albert Einstein was taught to sail on Little Peconic Bay but his sailing skills left much to be desired. While in Cutchogue on August 2, 1939, pipe-smoking Einstein was visited by fellow Jewish physicists from Hungary Leó Szilárd (who had produced
15576-405: The term "Board of Supervisors." 34 counties have a County Legislature, six counties have a Board of Legislators, and one county has a Board of Representatives. The five counties, or boroughs, of New York City are governed by a 51-member City Council. In non-charter counties, the legislative body exercises executive power as well. Although the legislature can delegate certain functions and duties to
15708-415: The time was how a production reactor should be cooled. Taking a conservative view that every possible neutron must be preserved, the majority opinion initially favored cooling with helium, which would absorb very few neutrons. Szilard argued that if this was a concern, then liquid bismuth would be a better choice. He supervised experiments with it, but the practical difficulties turned out to be too great. In
15840-496: The town of Palm Tree in Orange County was incorporated in 2019 and is coterminous with the village of Kiryas Joel , having acquired land from the town of Monroe . When such an entity is formed, officials from either unit of government may serve in both village and town governments simultaneously. A referendum is held to decide whether residents prefer a village-style or town-style government, which will then function primarily as
15972-419: The town or towns in which they are located. Village residents pay both town and village taxes, and vote in town and village elections. Those services not provided by the village are provided by the town or towns containing the village. As of the 2000 census, 9.9% of the state's population was living in one of the 556 villages in New York. The legislature of a village is the board of trustees, composed of
16104-476: The war. Fermi and Szilard met with Herbert G. MacPherson and V. C. Hamister of the National Carbon Company , who manufactured graphite, and Szilard made another important discovery. He asked about impurities in graphite and learned from MacPherson that it usually contained boron , a neutron absorber. He then had special boron-free graphite produced. Had he not done so, they might have concluded, as
16236-451: The war. The two men saw biology as a field that had not been explored as much as physics and was ready for scientific breakthroughs. It was a field that Szilard had been working on in 1933 before he had become subsumed in the quest for a nuclear chain reaction. The duo made considerable advances. They invented the chemostat , a device for regulating the growth rate of the microorganisms in a bioreactor , and developed methods for measuring
16368-467: Was $ 65,469, and the median income for a family was $ 71,611. Males had a median income of $ 51,103 versus $ 34,432 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $ 35,042. About 2.0% of families and 5.6% of the population were below the poverty line , including 5.8% of those under age 18 and 3.4% of those age 65 or over. An avid sailor, Albert Einstein once called Little Peconic Bay in Cutchogue "the most beautiful sailing ground I ever experienced." In
16500-438: Was achieved in the first nuclear reactor under viewing stands of Stagg Field and shook Fermi's hand. Szilard started to acquire high-quality graphite and uranium, which were the necessary materials for building a large-scale chain reaction experiment. The success of this demonstration and technological breakthrough at the University of Chicago were partially due to Szilard's new atomic theories, his uranium lattice design, and
16632-545: Was convinced that socialism was the answer to Hungary's post-war problems, but not that of Kun's Hungarian Socialist Party, which had close ties to the Soviet Union . When Kun's government tottered, the brothers officially changed their religion from "Israelite" to " Calvinist ", but when they attempted to re-enroll in what was now the Budapest University of Technology, they were prevented from doing so by nationalist students because they were Jews. Convinced that there
16764-658: Was discharged honorably in November 1918, after the Armistice. In January 1919, Szilard resumed his engineering studies, but Hungary was in a chaotic political situation with the rise of the Hungarian Soviet Republic under Béla Kun . Szilard and his brother Béla founded their own political group, the Hungarian Association of Socialist Students, with a platform based on a scheme of Szilard's for taxation reform. He
16896-532: Was given urgency by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor the following day that brought the United States into World War II. It was formally approved by Roosevelt in January 1942. Arthur H. Compton from the University of Chicago was appointed head of research and development. Against Szilard's wishes, Compton concentrated all the groups working on reactors and plutonium at the Metallurgical Laboratory of
17028-1026: Was no future for him in Hungary, Szilard left for Berlin via Austria on December 25, 1919, and enrolled at the Technische Hochschule (Institute of Technology) in Berlin-Charlottenburg . He was soon joined by his brother Béla. Szilard became bored with engineering, and his attention turned to physics . This was not taught at the Technische Hochschule, so he transferred to Friedrich Wilhelm University , where he attended lectures given by Albert Einstein , Max Planck , Walter Nernst , James Franck and Max von Laue . He also met fellow Hungarian students Eugene Wigner , John von Neumann and Dennis Gabor . Szilard's doctoral dissertation on thermodynamics Über die thermodynamischen Schwankungserscheinungen (On The Manifestation of Thermodynamic Fluctuations), praised by Einstein, won top honors in 1922. It involved
17160-475: Was scientifically interesting because it gave insight into the atoms. Szilard was so annoyed at Rutherford's dismissal that, on the same day, he conceived of the idea of nuclear chain reaction (analogous to a chemical chain reaction ), using recently discovered neutrons . The idea did not use the mechanism of nuclear fission , which was not yet discovered, but Szilard realized that if neutrons could initiate any sort of energy-producing nuclear reaction, such as
17292-471: Was the first scientist of note to recognize the connection between thermodynamics and information theory . Szilard coined and submitted the earliest known patent applications and the first publications for the concept of the electron microscope (1928), the cyclotron (1929), and also contributed to the development of the linear accelerator (1928) in Germany. Between 1926 and 1930, he worked with Einstein on
17424-413: Was the location of three notorious murders perpetrated by Nicholas Bain . Hargrave Vineyard, the first winery on Long Island, was established in Cutchogue in 1973. The Long Island Merlot Alliance, which promotes wine-making using the merlot grape, the principal Long Island grape, is based in Cutchogue. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,849 people, 1,120 households, and 801 families residing in
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