85-570: Custard is a variety of culinary preparations based on sweetened milk , cheese , or cream cooked with egg or egg yolk to thicken it, and sometimes also flour , corn starch , or gelatin . Depending on the recipe, custard may vary in consistency from a thin pouring sauce ( crème anglaise ) to the thick pastry cream ( crème pâtissière ) used to fill éclairs . The most common custards are used in custard desserts or dessert sauces and typically include sugar and vanilla; however, savory custards are also found, e.g., in quiche . Custard
170-483: A Germanic source, from which also comes the word " sop ", a piece of bread used to soak up soup or a thick stew . The word restaurant (meaning "[something] restoring") was first used in France in the 16th century, to refer to a highly concentrated, inexpensive soup, sold by street vendors, that was advertised as an antidote to physical exhaustion . In 1765, according to Prosper Montagné's Larousse Gastronomique ,
255-872: A membrane . Each fat globule is composed almost entirely of triacylglycerols and is surrounded by a membrane consisting of complex lipids such as phospholipids , along with proteins. These act as emulsifiers which keep the individual globules from coalescing and protect the contents of these globules from various enzymes in the fluid portion of the milk. Although 97–98% of lipids are triacylglycerols, small amounts of di- and monoacylglycerols, free cholesterol and cholesterol esters, free fatty acids, and phospholipids are also present. Unlike protein and carbohydrates, fat composition in milk varies widely due to genetic, lactational, and nutritional factor difference between different species. Fat globules vary in size from less than 0.2 to about 15 micrometers in diameter between different species. Diameter may also vary between animals within
340-588: A Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specializing in such soups. This prompted the use of the modern word restaurant to refer to eating establishments. In the US , the first colonial cookbook was published by William Parks in Williamsburg, Virginia , in 1742, based on Eliza Smith's The Compleat Housewife; or Accomplished Gentlewoman's Companion , and it included several recipes for soups and bisques. A 1772 cookbook, The Frugal Housewife , contained an entire chapter on
425-535: A chilled vegetable-based soup originating from Spain. Vichyssoise is a cold purée of potatoes, leeks, and cream. A feature of East Asian soups not normally found in Western cuisine is the use of tofu in soups. Many traditional East Asian soups are typically broths, "clear soups", or starch thickened soups. In the English language, the word soup has developed several uses in phrase. The direct translation for soup in
510-1029: A clear distinction between the two; however, soups generally have more liquid (broth) than stews. In traditional French cuisine, soups are classified into two main groups: clear soups and thick soups . The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé . Thick soups are classified depending upon the type of thickening agent used: purées are vegetable soups thickened with starch ; bisques are made from puréed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream ; cream soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce ; and veloutés are thickened with eggs , butter , and cream. Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include rice , lentils , flour , and grains ; many popular soups also include pumpkin, carrots, potatoes, pig's trotters and bird's nests . Other types of soup include fruit soups , dessert soups, pulse soups such as split pea, cold soups and other styles. The earliest evidence for soup in human culinary practice dates to
595-404: A few vegetables to eggs, meat, cream or pasta. Since the 1990s, the canned soup market has burgeoned, with non-condensed soups marketed as "ready-to-eat", so they require no additional liquid to prepare. Microwaveable bowls have expanded the "ready-to-eat" canned soup market even more, offering convenience (especially in workplaces), and making for popular lunch items. In response to concerns over
680-461: A food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase , an enzyme necessary for digesting the lactose in milk. People therefore converted milk to curd , cheese, and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in northwestern Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood . This mutation allowed milk to be used as
765-474: A great variety of canned and dried soups are on the market. Canned soup can be condensed, in which case it is prepared by adding water (or sometimes milk ) or it can be "ready-to-eat", meaning that no additional liquid is needed before eating. Condensed soup (invented in 1897 by John T. Dorrance , a chemist with the Campbell Soup Company ) allows soup to be packaged into a smaller can and sold at
850-412: A greenish color, which sometimes can be discerned in skimmed milk or whey products. Fat-free skimmed milk has only the casein micelles to scatter light, and they tend to scatter shorter-wavelength blue light more than they do red, giving skimmed milk a bluish tint. In most Western countries, centralized dairy facilities process milk and products obtained from milk , such as cream, butter, and cheese. In
935-400: A large number of active enzymes. Both the fat globules and the smaller casein micelles, which are just large enough to deflect light, contribute to the opaque white color of milk. The fat globules contain some yellow-orange carotene, enough in some breeds (such as Guernsey and Jersey cattle) to impart a golden or "creamy" hue to a glass of milk. The riboflavin in the whey portion of milk has
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#17328692209181020-424: A lower price than other canned soups. The soup is usually doubled in volume by adding a "can full" of water or milk, about 10 US fluid ounces (300 ml). The "ready-to-eat" variant can be prepared by simply heating the contents of the can on a kitchen stove or in a microwave oven , rather than actually cooking anything. Such soups can be used as a base for homemade soups, with the consumer adding anything from
1105-464: A method of killing harmful bacteria in beverages and food products. He developed this method while on summer vacation in Arbois , to remedy the frequent acidity of the local wines. He found out experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about 50–60 °C (122–140 °F) for a brief time to kill the microbes, and that the wine could be nevertheless properly aged without sacrificing
1190-469: A new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream , butter , yogurt , kefir , ice cream and cheese . Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein , whey protein , lactose, condensed milk , powdered milk , and many other food-additives and industrial products. Whole milk, butter, and cream have high levels of saturated fat . The sugar lactose
1275-458: A required daily commodity. Over the last three decades of the 19th century, demand for milk in most parts of the country doubled or, in some cases, tripled. Legislation in 1875 made the adulteration of milk illegal – This combined with a marketing campaign to change the image of milk. The proportion of rural imports by rail as a percentage of total milk consumption in London grew from under 5% in
1360-840: A separate secondary products revolution in the fourth millennium BC. Sherratt's model is not supported by recent findings, based on the analysis of lipid residue in prehistoric pottery, that shows that dairying was practiced in the early phases of agriculture in Southwest Asia, by at least the seventh millennium BC. From Southwest Asia domestic dairy animals spread to Europe (beginning around 7000 BC but did not reach Britain and Scandinavia until after 4000 BC), and South Asia (7000–5500 BC). The first farmers in central Europe and Britain milked their animals. Pastoral and pastoral nomadic economies, which rely predominantly or exclusively on domestic animals and their products rather than crop farming, were developed as European farmers moved into
1445-407: A small scale and presents significant opportunities for diversification of income sources by small farms. Local milk collection centers, where milk is collected and chilled prior to being transferred to urban dairies, are a good example of where farmers have been able to work on a cooperative basis, particularly in countries such as India. FAO reports Israel dairy farms are the most productive in
1530-449: A smoother texture and thicker mouth feel. If the mixture pH is 9 or higher, the gel is too hard; if it is below 5, the gel structure has difficulty forming because protonation prevents the formation of covalent bonds . Cooked (set) custard is a weak gel , viscous, and thixotropic ; while it does become easier to stir the more it is manipulated, it does not, unlike many other thixotropic liquids, recover its lost viscosity over time. On
1615-484: A species and at different times within a milking of a single animal. In unhomogenized cow's milk, the fat globules have an average diameter of two to four micrometers and with homogenization, average around 0.4 micrometers. The fat-soluble vitamins A , D , E , and K along with essential fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic acid are found within the milk fat portion of the milk. Normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein per liter, of which about 80%
1700-400: A tenth of a micrometer across. There are four different types of casein proteins: αs1-, αs2-, β-, and κ-caseins. Most of the casein proteins are bound into the micelles. There are several competing theories regarding the precise structure of the micelles, but they share one important feature: the outermost layer consists of strands of one type of protein, k-casein , reaching out from the body of
1785-499: A thickener (without eggs), the result is a blancmange . In the United Kingdom, custard has various traditional recipes some thickened principally with cornflour (cornstarch) rather than the egg component, others involving regular flour; see custard powder . After the custard has thickened, it may be mixed with other ingredients: mixed with stiffly beaten egg whites and gelatin, it is chiboust cream ; mixed with whipped cream, it
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#17328692209181870-780: Is collected from farm animals , mostly cattle . In 2011, dairy farms produced around 730 million tonnes (800 million short tons) of milk from 260 million dairy cows. India is the world's largest producer of milk and the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder. New Zealand, Germany, and the Netherlands are the largest exporters of milk products. Between 750 and 900 million people live in dairy-farming households. The term milk comes from "Old English meoluc (West Saxon), milc (Anglian), from Proto-Germanic * meluks "milk" (source also of Old Norse mjolk , Old Frisian melok , Old Saxon miluk , Dutch melk , Old High German miluh , German Milch , Gothic miluks )". Since 1961,
1955-424: Is crème légère , [kʁɛm leʒɛːʁ] . Beating in softened butter produces German buttercream or crème mousseline . A quiche is a savoury custard tart. Some kinds of timbale or vegetable loaf are made of a custard base mixed with chopped savoury ingredients. Custard royale is a thick custard cut into decorative shapes and used to garnish soup , stew or broth . In German, it is known as Eierstich and
2040-457: Is a disaccharide composite of two simple sugars , glucose and galactose . Bovine milk averages 4.8% anhydrous lactose, which amounts to about 50% of the total solids of skimmed milk. Levels of lactose are dependent upon the type of milk as other carbohydrates can be present at higher concentrations than lactose in milks. Other components found in raw cow's milk are living white blood cells , mammary gland cells, various bacteria, vitamin C, and
2125-411: Is a primarily liquid food , generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients of meat or vegetables with stock , milk, or water. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling or simmering solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, forming a broth . Soups are similar to stews , and in some cases there may not be
2210-432: Is added, the result is called 'pastry cream' ( French : crème pâtissière , pronounced [kʁɛm pɑtisjɛːʁ] ) or confectioners' custard, made with a combination of milk or cream, egg yolks, fine sugar, flour or some other starch, and usually a flavoring such as vanilla, chocolate, or lemon. Crème pâtissière is a key ingredient in many French desserts, including mille-feuille (or Napoleons) and filled tarts. It
2295-479: Is already lower than the average by between 0.7 and 4 kg in July (the hottest month of the year), and by 2070, it may decline by up to 50% (or 7.2 kg) due to climate change. Heatwaves can also reduce milk yield, with particularly acute impacts if the heatwave lasts for four or more days, as at that point the cow's thermoregulation capacity is usually exhausted, and its core body temperature starts to increase. It
2380-526: Is also used in Italian pastry and sometimes in Boston cream pie . The thickening of the custard is caused by the combination of egg and starch. Corn flour or flour thickens at 100 °C (212 °F) and as such many recipes instruct the pastry cream to be boiled. In a traditional custard such as a crème anglaise , where eggs are used alone as a thickener, boiling results in the over-cooking and subsequent curdling of
2465-422: Is arranged in casein micelles . Total proteins in milk represent 3.2% of its composition (nutrition table). The largest structures in the fluid portion of the milk are "casein micelles" : aggregates of several thousand protein molecules with superficial resemblance to a surfactant micelle , bonded with the help of nanometer-scale particles of calcium phosphate . Each casein micelle is roughly spherical and about
2550-448: Is called colostrum , contains antibodies and immune-modulating components that strengthen the immune system against many diseases. The US CDC agency recommends that children over the age of 12 months (the minimum age to stop giving breast milk or formula ) should have two servings of dairy (milk) products a day, and more than six billion people worldwide consume milk and milk products. As an agricultural product, dairy milk
2635-705: Is down 30 cents per US gallon (7.9 ¢/L; 36 ¢/imp gal) from 2007 and below the break-even point for many cattle farmers. Milk is an emulsion or colloid of butterfat globules within a water-based fluid that contains dissolved carbohydrates and protein aggregates with minerals. Because it is produced as a food source for the young, all of its contents provide benefits for growth. The principal requirements are energy (lipids, lactose, and protein), biosynthesis of non-essential amino acids supplied by proteins (essential amino acids and amino groups), essential fatty acids, vitamins and inorganic elements, and water. The pH of cow's milk, ranging from 6.7 to 6.9,
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2720-422: Is formed. Under the second theory, proposed by Horne, the growth of calcium phosphate nanoclusters begins the process of micelle formation, but is limited by binding phosphopeptide loop regions of the caseins. Once bound, protein-protein interactions are formed and polymerization occurs, in which K-casein is used as an end cap to form micelles with trapped calcium phosphate nanoclusters. Some sources indicate that
2805-514: Is found only in milk, and possibly in forsythia flowers and a few tropical shrubs. Lactase, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, reaches its highest levels in the human small intestine immediately after birth, and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly. Those groups who continue to tolerate milk have often exercised great creativity in using the milk of domesticated ungulates , not only cattle, but also sheep, goats, yaks , water buffalo , horses, reindeer and camels . India
2890-455: Is often served before other dishes in a meal. In 1970, Richard Olney gave the place of the entrée in a French full menu: "A dinner that begins with a soup and runs through a fish course, an entrée, a sorbet, a roast, salad, cheese and dessert, and that may be accompanied by from three to six wines, presents a special problem of orchestration". Fruit soups are prepared using fruit as a primary ingredient, and may be served warm or cold depending on
2975-447: Is present in excess and often, much greater excess of solubility of solid calcium phosphate. In addition to calcium, milk is a source of many vitamins: Vitamins A, B1, B2, B5 B6, B7, B12, and D. For many years the most widely accepted theory of the structure of a micelle was that it was composed of spherical casein aggregates, called submicelles, that were held together by calcium phosphate linkages. However, there are two recent models of
3060-407: Is rare, with studies showing that mothers from malnourished regions still produce amounts of milk of similar quality to that of mothers in developed countries. There are many reasons a mother may not produce enough breast milk . The amount of milk produced depends on how often the mother is nursing and/or pumping : the more the mother nurses her baby or pumps, the more milk is produced. In
3145-629: Is similar to cow's milk and perfectly suitable for human consumption. The main reasons for this are that milking a sow's numerous small teats is very cumbersome, and that sows cannot store their milk as cows can. A few pig farms do sell pig cheese as a novelty item; these cheeses are exceedingly expensive. In 2012, the largest producer of milk and milk products was India, followed by the United States of America, China, Pakistan and Brazil. All 28 European Union members together produced 153.8 million tonnes (169.5 million short tons) of milk in 2013,
3230-422: Is similar to other bovines and non-bovine mammals . Full fat milk contains about 33 grams of fat per liter, including about 19 grams of saturated fat, 1.2 grams of omega 6 fatty acids, and 0.75 grams of omega 3 fatty acids per liter. The amount of fat varies for products where (some of) the fat has been removed, such as in skimmed milk. Initially milk fat is secreted in the form of a fat globule surrounded by
3315-525: Is the largest producer and consumer of cattle milk and buffalo milk in the world. Humans first learned to consume the milk of other mammals regularly following the domestication of animals during the Neolithic Revolution or the development of agriculture. This development occurred independently in several global locations from as early as 9000–7000 BC in Mesopotamia to 3500–3000 BC in
3400-415: Is their primary source of nutrition; and humans obtain milk from other mammals for consumption by humans of all ages, as one component of a varied diet. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding , either directly or by expressing the milk to be stored and consumed later. The early milk from mammals is called colostrum . Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to
3485-483: Is used as a garnish in German Wedding Soup ( Hochzeitssuppe ). Chawanmushi is a Japanese savoury custard, steamed and served in a small bowl or on a saucer. Chinese steamed egg is a similar but larger savoury egg dish. Bougatsa is a Greek breakfast pastry whose sweet version consists of semolina custard filling between layers of phyllo . Custard may also be used as a top layer in gratins , such as
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3570-572: Is usually cooked in a double boiler ( bain-marie ), or heated very gently in a saucepan on a stove, though custard can also be steamed, baked in the oven with or without a water bath, or even cooked in a pressure cooker . Custard preparation is a delicate operation because a temperature increase of 3–6 °C (5.4–10.8 °F) leads to overcooking and curdling . Generally, a fully cooked custard should not exceed 80 °C (176 °F); it begins setting at 70 °C (158 °F). A bain marie water bath slows heat transfer and makes it easier to remove
3655-578: The Middle Ages , and are the origin of the English word 'custard': the French term croustade originally referred to the crust of a tart, and is derived from the Italian word crostata , and ultimately the Latin crustāre . Examples include Crustardes of flessh and Crustade , in the 14th century English collection The Forme of Cury . These recipes include solid ingredients such as meat, fish, and fruit bound by
3740-758: The Pontic–Caspian steppe in the fourth millennium BC, and subsequently spread across much of the Eurasian steppe . Sheep and goats were introduced to Africa from Southwest Asia, but African cattle may have been independently domesticated around 7000–6000 BC. Camels, domesticated in central Arabia in the fourth millennium BC, have also been used as dairy animals in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. The earliest Egyptian records of burn treatments describe burn dressings using milk from mothers of male babies. In
3825-459: The South African bobotie and many Balkan versions of moussaka . In Peru, leche asada ("baked milk") is custard baked in individual molds. It is considered a restaurant dish. French cuisine has several named variations on custard: Recipes involving sweet custard are listed in the custard dessert category , and include: Custards baked in pastry ( custard tarts ) were very popular in
3910-703: The Upper Palaeolithic period when thermally altered rocks became commonplace in the archaeological record. Small boiling pits are present on the Gravettian site Pavlov VI. Cobbles were heated on the hearth and then placed into the water to bring it to boil. However, the antiquity of soup is highly contested. Based on ethnographic evidence, some archaeologists conjecture that early humans employed hides and watertight baskets to boil water. The word soup comes from French soupe ("soup", "broth"), which comes through Vulgar Latin suppa ("bread soaked in broth") from
3995-414: The "Prince of Soups". The first American cooking pamphlet dedicated to soup recipes was written in 1882 by Emma Ewing: Soups and Soup Making . Portable soup was devised in the 18th century by boiling seasoned meat until a thick, resinous syrup was left that could be dried and stored for months at a time. Commercial soup became popular with the invention of canning in the 19th century, and today
4080-635: The 1605 voyage made by George Weymouth to New England reported that the Wabanaki people Weymouth captured in Maine milked "Rain-Deere and Fallo-Deere." But Journalist Avery Yale Kamila and food historians said Rosier "misinterpreted the evidence." Historians report the Wabanaki did not domesticate deer. The tribes of the northern woodlands have historically been making nut milk . Cows were imported to New England in 1624. The growth in urban population, coupled with
4165-455: The 1860s to over 96% by the early 20th century. By that point, the supply system for milk was the most highly organized and integrated of any food product. Milk was analyzed for infection with tuberculosis . In 1907 180 samples were tested in Birmingham and 13.3% were found to be infected. The first glass bottle packaging for milk was used in the 1870s. The first company to do so may have been
4250-482: The Americas. People first domesticated the most important dairy animals – cattle, sheep and goats – in Southwest Asia, although domestic cattle had been independently derived from wild aurochs populations several times since. Initially animals were kept for meat, and archaeologist Andrew Sherratt has suggested that dairying, along with the exploitation of domestic animals for hair and labor, began much later in
4335-565: The New York Dairy Company in 1877. The Express Dairy Company in England began glass bottle production in 1880. In 1884, Hervey Thatcher, an American inventor from New York, invented a glass milk bottle , called "Thatcher's Common Sense Milk Jar," which was sealed with a waxed paper disk. In 1932, plastic-coated paper milk cartons were introduced commercially. In 1863, French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur invented pasteurization,
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#17328692209184420-561: The US National Bison Association, American bison (also called American buffalo) are not milked commercially; however, various sources report cows resulting from cross-breeding bison and domestic cattle are good milk producers, and have been used both during the European settlement of North America and during the development of commercial Beefalo in the 1970s and 1980s. Swine are almost never milked, even though their milk
4505-933: The US, these dairies usually are local companies, while in the Southern Hemisphere facilities may be run by large multi-national corporations such as Fonterra . Pasteurization is used to kill harmful pathogenic bacteria such as M. paratuberculosis and E. coli 0157:H7 by heating the milk for a short time and then immediately cooling it. Types of pasteurized milk include full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium enriched, flavored, and UHT. The standard high temperature short time (HTST) process of 72 °C (162 °F) for 15 seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in milk, rendering it safe to drink for up to three weeks if continually refrigerated. Dairies print best before dates on each container, after which stores remove any unsold milk from their shelves. Soup Soup
4590-483: The United States include Ayrshire , Brown Swiss , Guernsey , Jersey and Milking Shorthorn (Dairy Shorthorn). Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo , goat , sheep , camel , donkey , horse , reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011. In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist. According to
4675-558: The Western world, cow's milk is produced on an industrial scale and is, by far, the most commonly consumed form of milk. Commercial dairy farming using automated milking equipment produces the vast majority of milk in developed countries . Dairy cattle , such as the Holstein , have been bred selectively for increased milk production. About 90% of the dairy cows in the United States and 85% in Great Britain are Holsteins. Other dairy cows in
4760-460: The amount of milk produced. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases , etc.) but who cannot breastfeed. Actual inability to produce enough milk
4845-426: The casein micelle that refute the distinct micellular structures within the micelle. The first theory, attributed to de Kruif and Holt, proposes that nanoclusters of calcium phosphate and the phosphopeptide fraction of beta-casein are the centerpiece to micellar structure. Specifically in this view unstructured proteins organize around the calcium phosphate, giving rise to their structure, and thus no specific structure
4930-577: The custard from the oven before it curdles. Adding a small amount of cornflour to the egg-sugar mixture stabilises the resulting custard, allowing it to be cooked in a single pan as well as in a double-boiler. A sous-vide water bath may be used to precisely control temperature. While custard may refer to a wide variety of thickened dishes, technically (and in French cookery ) the word custard ( crème or more precisely crème moulée , [kʁɛm mule] ) refers only to an egg-thickened custard. When starch
5015-480: The custard. Stirred custards cooked in pots are also found under the names Creme Boylede and Creme boiled . Some custards especially in the Elizabethan era used marigold ( calendula ) to give the custard color. In modern times, the name 'custard' is sometimes applied to starch-thickened preparations like blancmange and Bird's Custard powder. Stirred custard is thickened by coagulation of egg protein, while
5100-407: The custard; however, in a pastry cream, starch prevents this. Once cooled, the amount of starch in pastry cream sets the cream and requires it to be beaten or whipped before use. When gelatin is added, it is known as crème anglaise collée ( [kʁɛm ɑ̃ɡlɛz kɔle] ). When gelatin is added and whipped cream is folded in, and it sets in a mold, it is bavarois . When starch is used alone as
5185-457: The expansion of the railway network in the mid-19th century, brought about a revolution in milk production and supply. Individual railway firms began transporting milk from rural areas to London from the 1840s and 1850s. Possibly the first such instance was in 1846, when St Thomas's Hospital in Southwark contracted with milk suppliers outside London to ship milk by rail. The Great Western Railway
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#17328692209185270-532: The final quality. In honor of Pasteur, the process became known as "pasteurization". Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring. Commercial pasteurizing equipment was produced in Germany in the 1880s, and producers adopted the process in Copenhagen and Stockholm by 1885. All mammal species have females who can produce milk for some time after giving birth. Cow milk dominates
5355-408: The largest by any politico - economic union. Increasing affluence in developing countries, as well as increased promotion of milk and milk products, has led to a rise in milk consumption in developing countries in recent years. In turn, the opportunities presented by these growing markets have attracted investments by multinational dairy firms. Nevertheless, in many countries production remains on
5440-514: The loss reaching 0.54 kg for 25–30 °C (77–86 °F). Research in a humid tropical climate describes a more linear relationship, with every unit of heat stress reducing yield by 2.13%. In the intensive farming systems, daily milk yield per cow declines by 1.8 kg during severe heat stress. In organic farming systems, the effect of heat stress on milk yields is limited, but milk quality suffers substantially, with lower fat and protein content. In China, daily milk production per cow
5525-464: The micelle into the surrounding fluid. These kappa-casein molecules all have a negative electrical charge and therefore repel each other, keeping the micelles separated under normal conditions and in a stable colloidal suspension in the water-based surrounding fluid. Milk contains dozens of other types of proteins beside caseins and including enzymes. These other proteins are more water-soluble than caseins and do not form larger structures. Because
5610-644: The negative health effects of excessive salt intake, some soup manufacturers have introduced reduced-salt versions of popular soups. Today, Campbell's Tomato (introduced in 1897), Cream of Mushroom , and Chicken Noodle (introduced in 1934) are three of the most popular soups in America. Americans consume approximately 2.5 billion bowls of these three soups alone each year. Other popular brands of soup include Progresso . Dry soup mixes are sold by many manufacturers, and are reconstituted with hot water; other fresh ingredients may then be added. The first dried soup
5695-473: The newborn baby as well as nutrients and growth factors. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species. For humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for up to two years of age or more. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and
5780-719: The other hand, a suspension of uncooked imitation custard powder ( starch ) in water, with the proper proportions, has the opposite rheological property: it is negative thixotropic, or dilatant , allowing the demonstration of "walking on custard". Milk Milk is a white liquid food produced by the mammary glands of mammals . It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals (including breastfed human infants) before they are able to digest solid food. Milk contains many nutrients, including calcium and protein , as well as lactose and saturated fat . Immune factors and immune-modulating components in milk contribute to milk immunity . Early- lactation milk, which
5865-409: The overall thinning of custard in the mouth. Egg yolk lecithin also helps to maintain the milk-egg interface. The proteins in egg whites are set at 60–80 °C (140–176 °F). Starch is sometimes added to custard to prevent premature curdling. The starch acts as a heat buffer in the mixture: as they hydrate, they absorb heat and help maintain a constant rate of heat transfer. Starches also make for
5950-462: The period may be longer. Fresh goats' milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk , which introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis , megaloblastic anemia , and a host of allergic reactions . In many cultures, especially in the West , humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other mammals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as
6035-476: The possibility that the already recorded stagnation of dairy production in both China and West Africa can be attributed to persistent increases in heat stress caused by climate change . This is a plausible hypothesis , because even mild heat stress can reduce daily yields: research in Sweden found that average daily temperatures of 20–25 °C (68–77 °F) reduce daily milk yield per cow by 0.2 kg, with
6120-596: The production obtained. New Zealand cows with the lowest yield per year grazed all year, in contrast to Israel with the highest yield where the cows ate in barns with an energy-rich mixed diet. The milk yield per cow in the United States was 9,954 kg (21,945 lb) per year in 2010. In contrast, the milk yields per cow in India and China – the second and third largest producers – were respectively 1,154 kg (2,544 lb) and 2,282 kg (5,031 lb) per year. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report mentions
6205-679: The proteins remain suspended in whey , remaining when caseins coagulate into curds, they are collectively known as whey proteins . Lactoglobulin is the most common whey protein by a large margin. The ratio of caseins to whey proteins varies greatly between species; for example, it is 82:18 in cows and around 32:68 in humans. Bovine milk contains a variety of cations and anions traditionally referred to as "minerals" or "milk salts". Calcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chloride are all included and they typically occur at concentrations of 5–40 mM . The milk salts strongly interact with casein, most notably calcium phosphate. It
6290-404: The recipe. Many varieties of fruit soups exist, and they may be prepared based upon the availability of seasonal fruit. Cold soups are a particular variation on the traditional soup, wherein the temperature when served is kept at or below room temperature. They may be sweet or savory. In summer, sweet cold soups can form part of a dessert tray. An example of a savory chilled soup is gazpacho ,
6375-473: The rest of the world (i.e., East and Southeast Asia, the Americas and Australia), milk and dairy products were historically not a large part of the diet, either because they remained populated by hunter-gatherers who did not keep animals or the local agricultural economies did not include domesticated dairy species. Milk consumption became common in these regions comparatively recently, as a consequence of European colonialism and political domination over much of
6460-488: The same gives baked custard its gel structure. The type of milk used also impacts the result. Most important to a successfully stirred custard is to avoid excessive heat that will cause over-coagulation and syneresis that will result in a curdled custard. Eggs contain the proteins necessary for the gel structure to form, and emulsifiers to maintain the structure. Egg yolk also contains enzymes like amylase, which can break down added starch. This enzyme activity contributes to
6545-453: The same period increased from 7,726 to 8,550 kg (17,033 to 18,850 lb) per cow in these developed countries. The lowest average production was in New Zealand at 3,974 kg (8,761 lb) per cow. The milk yield per cow depended on production systems, nutrition of the cows, and only to a minor extent different genetic potential of the animals. What the cow ate made the most impact on
6630-480: The term milk has been defined under Codex Alimentarius standards as "the normal mammary secretion of milking animals obtained from one or more milkings without either addition to it or extraction from it, intended for consumption as liquid milk or for further processing." The term dairy refers to animal milk and animal milk production. There are two distinct categories of milk consumption: all infant mammals drink milk directly from their mothers' bodies, and it
6715-546: The topic. English cooking dominated early colonial cooking; but as new immigrants arrived from other countries, other national soups gained popularity. In particular, German immigrants living in Pennsylvania were famous for their potato soups. In 1794, Jean Baptiste Gilbert Payplat dis Julien, a refugee from the French Revolution , opened an eating establishment in Boston called " The Restorator ", and became known as
6800-415: The trapped calcium phosphate is in the form of Ca 9 (PO 4 ) 6 ; whereas others say it is similar to the structure of the mineral brushite , CaHPO 4 ·2H 2 O. Milk contains several different carbohydrates , including lactose , glucose , galactose , and other oligosaccharides . The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes approximately 40% of the calories in whole cow's milk's. Lactose
6885-402: The world in the last 500 years. In the Middle Ages , milk was called the "virtuous white liquor" because alcoholic beverages were safer to consume than the water generally available. Incorrectly thought to be blood diverted from the womb to the breast, it was also known as "white blood", and treated like blood for religious dietary purposes and in humoral theory . James Rosier's record of
6970-507: The world, with a yield of 12,546 kilograms (27,659 lb) milk per cow per year. This survey over 2001 and 2007 was conducted by ICAR (International Committee for Animal Recording) across 17 developed countries. The survey found that the average herd size in these developed countries increased from 74 to 99 cows per herd between 2001 and 2007. A dairy farm had an average of 19 cows per herd in Norway, and 337 in New Zealand. Annual milk production in
7055-602: Was bouillon cubes ; the earlier meat extract did not require refrigeration, but was a viscous liquid. East Asian-style instant noodle soups include ramen and seasonings, and are marketed as a convenient and inexpensive instant meal, requiring only hot water for preparation. While North American ones tend to have a powder pack only, instant noodles sold in East Asia commonly include a pack of dried vegetables too. Western-style dried soups include vegetable, chicken base, potato, pasta and cheese flavors. In French cuisine, soup
7140-495: Was an early and enthusiastic adopter, and began to transport milk into London from Maidenhead in 1860, despite much criticism. By 1900, the company was transporting over 25 million imperial gallons (110 million litres; 30 million US gallons) annually. The milk trade grew slowly through the 1860s, but went through a period of extensive, structural change in the 1870s and 1880s. Urban demand began to grow, as consumer purchasing power increased and milk became regarded as
7225-632: Was reported in 2007 that with increased worldwide prosperity and the competition of bio-fuel production for feed stocks, both the demand for and the price of milk had substantially increased worldwide. Particularly notable was the rapid increase of consumption of milk in China and the rise of the price of milk in the United States above the government subsidized price. In 2010 the Department of Agriculture predicted farmers would receive an average of $ 1.35 per US gallon ($ 0.36/L; $ 1.62/imp gal) of cow's milk, which
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