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59-512: The town of Cuajinicuilapa is 361 km from the Guerrero state capital of Chilpancingo and has an altitude of fifty meters above sea level. While it is the commercial center of a rural municipality with two small supermarkets, various stores and a traditional municipal market, it has a high level of socioeconomic marginalization. It is also the center of communications and transportation with mail service and telephone mostly limited to here and it has

118-427: A 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50 lbf/in (0.345 newton/mm ) for the finished block. In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as

177-421: A 10-inch wall R 0 =4.1 hr ft °F/Btu. Another source provides the following properties: conductivity=0.30 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.52 W/(m K); specific heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lb °F) or 1 kJ/(kg K) and density=106 lb/ft or 1700 kg/m , giving heat capacity=25.4 Btu/(ft °F) or 1700 kJ/(m K). Using the average value of the thermal conductivity as k = 32 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.55 W/(m K), the thermal diffusivity

236-846: A chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls. In 1927, the Uniform Building Code (UBC) was adopted in the United States. Local ordinances, referencing the UBC added requirements to building with adobe. These included: restriction of building height of adobe structures to 1-story, requirements for adobe mix (compressive and shear strength) and new requirements which stated that every building shall be designed to withstand seismic activity, specifically lateral forces. By

295-653: A drink called chicha. Almost all in the municipality are Catholic with only about 2,500 people professing other faiths such as Jehovah's Witness and Pentecostal. However, the percentage of non-Catholics is growing. The main feast days are dedicated to the Apostle James (in August) and Nicolas of Tolentino in September. On the second Friday of Lent , a regional fair exhibits the area's products, such as cattle, along with cockfights , horse racing and popular dance. Cuajinicuilapa

354-454: A factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature. Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for this material, as its main thermodynamic property is inertia, and conclude that experimental tests should be performed over a longer period of time than usual - preferably with changing thermal jumps. There

413-420: A few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture, without straw, is used to make mortar and often plaster on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used lime -based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage. Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying

472-466: A greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least 25 mm (1 in) thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick's edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain. Roof design evolved around 1850 in the American Southwest. Three inches of adobe mud

531-583: A horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters. The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using

590-543: A magnitude of 5.6 was centered near Chilpancingo. On 6 October 2024, mayor Alejandro Arcos was beheaded just six days after taking office, allegedly by drug cartels. His murder came three days after Francisco Tapia, the city government's secretary, was shot to death. In 1869, the Autonomous University of Guerrero was established in Chilpancingo; it still plays a considerable role in the local economy. The city

649-624: A mix of not more than 1 ⁄ 3 clay, not less than 1 ⁄ 2 sand, and never more than 1 ⁄ 3 silt. During the Great Depression , designer and builder Hugh W. Comstock used cheaper materials and made a specialized adobe brick called "Bitudobe." His first adobe house was built in 1936. In 1948, he published the book Post-Adobe; Simplified Adobe Construction Combining A Rugged Timber Frame And Modern Stabilized Adobe, which described his method of construction, including how to make "Bitudobe." In 1938, he served as an adviser to

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708-410: A mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe. Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on

767-403: A significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun ( radiation ) and from

826-554: A small airstrip. It is the seat of a municipality that promotes its Afro-Mexican heritage. The town was host to the 13th Encuentro de Pueblos Negros in 2011, sponsored by the Centro Cultural de España en México. The purpose of the event is to promote Afro-Mexican identity, issues and culture in Mexico. The Museo de las Culturas Afromestizas, formerly called the Museo de la Tercera Raíz, is

885-514: A strategic place for the sides in the debate. Battles took place in the vicinity in the 1910s, in which Emiliano Zapata defeated federal forces of Porfirio Díaz , Francisco I. Madero , Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano Carranza . A major defeat of Huerta's southern forces took place here in March-April 1914; the Zapatistas took the town until after the 1917 Constitutional Convention . In 1960,

944-443: A way to obtain federal resources. Afro-Mexican culture is not defined by language or dress, but rather body language, vocabulary and a shared history. Much of the “black” population is mixed with indigenous. Those native to the municipality are called criollos even if black. There is some hostility between blacks and indigenous. Much of the population of the area has migrated out since the 1980s. The population has grown, but much of this

1003-500: Is a building material made from earth and organic materials. Adobe is Spanish for mudbrick . In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States , the term is used to refer to any kind of earthen construction, or various architectural styles like Pueblo Revival or Territorial Revival . Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to cob and rammed earth buildings. Adobe

1062-605: Is a producer of processed foods and alcoholic beverages, and is a market for maize, sugarcane, bananas, livestock, and lumber produced in the region. Pezuapan is an archaeological site located in the city of Chilpancingo. It sits on the eastern slope of the Chilpancingo valley. The archaeological vestiges found at the site cover the total area of 4000 m². The dates are from 650 AD to 1150 AD. Other archaeological sites found in this area of Guerrero are: Adobe Adobe ( / ə ˈ d oʊ b i / ə- DOH -bee ; Spanish pronunciation: [aˈðoβe] )

1121-424: Is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world. Adobe architecture has been dated to before 5,100 BCE. Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure. There is no standard size, with substantial variations over

1180-424: Is an effective R-value for a north facing 10-in wall of R0=10 hr ft °F/Btu, which corresponds to thermal conductivity k=10 in x 1 ft/12 in /R0=0.33 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.57 W/(m K) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported from another source. To determine the total R-value of a wall, scale R 0 by the thickness of the wall in inches. The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an R-value for

1239-405: Is because of migration into Cuajinicuilapa by other groups, including Amuzgos and Mixtecs, especially in the 2000s. They have become the majority in a number of communities in the municipality including El Cuije and La Petaca. As of 2010, there are just over 1,300 who speak an indigenous language, most of whom speak Amuzgo and Mixtec. Los Diablos (the devils) is the best known Afro-Mexican dance in

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1298-476: Is calculated to be 0.013 ft /h or 3.3x10 m /s. Poured and puddled adobe (puddled clay, piled earth), today called cob , is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than by making individual dried bricks or using a form. "Puddle" is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state. These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in

1357-581: Is centered on a frame in the shape of a bull that goes through town with residents dancing around it. Versions of La Conquista and Doce Pares de Francia have unusual characters such as Hernán Cortés, Cuauhtémoc , Moctezuma, Charlemagne and Turkish horsemen. Las Chilenas are dances with erotic movements. Regional specialties include barbacoa , red and green mole , pig's head with mole sauce, tamales of various types including with iguana meat, seafood prepared in various ways including shrimp and lobster. Traditional drinks include chilate (similar to pozol ) and

1416-436: Is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, rebar , or wooden posts. Straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick. A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container

1475-720: Is in the Costa Chica region of Guerrero in the southeast of the state along the Pacific Ocean and the border of Oaxaca. The area is mostly rolling hills along with beaches on the coast. Near the Pacific Ocean and the Azoyú border in the northwest the land is flat, in the southeast it is semi-flat with gentle hills. There are very few significant elevations but they include El Borjo, 85 m (279 ft) above sea level, Las Tablas, 70 m (230 ft), Pozas de Agua, 85 m (279 ft), and Piedra Parada, 45 m (148 ft). The climate

1534-815: Is semi moist and hot with average temperatures varying from 19 °C (66 °F) to 34 °C (93 °F) during the year. There is a defined rainy season from May to October. The most important river is the Santa Catarina, which enters the municipality from Ometepec. Here it joins with the Quetzala to empty into the Pacific at the Barra de Tecoanapa. In addition there are a number of streams such as La Zanja, Arriero, Las Playitas, Mataplátano, Cuaulote, Cortija, El Chorro, La Serpiente, Carrizo, Arroyo Viejo, Soledad, Tecoyame, La Presa, Fortuna and Samaritanes. There are some lagoons such as

1593-572: Is served by Chilpancingo National Airport , which is one of the five airports in the state. In pre-Columbian times, the area was occupied by the Olmecs , who built an extensive tunnel network through the mountains, and left the cave paintings in the caverns of Juxtlahuaca . The city of Chilpancingo was founded on 1 November 1591 by the Spanish conquistadores , its name meaning "Place of Wasps" in Nahuatl. During

1652-523: Is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that, and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service at New Mexico State University recommends

1711-608: Is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight. No more than half the clay content should be expansive clays , with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into

1770-565: Is the capital and second-largest city of the Mexican state of Guerrero . In 2010 it had a population of 187,251 people. The municipality has an area of 2,338.4 km (902.9 sq mi) in the south-central part of the state, situated in the Sierra Madre del Sur mountains, on the bank of the Huacapa River . The city is on Federal Highway 95 , which connects Acapulco to Mexico City . It

1829-470: Is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, and 55–75% fine sand. Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm (2 to 10 in), with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe

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1888-479: The 1976 Guatemala earthquake , the 2003 Bam earthquake , and the 2010 Chile earthquake . Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world (Middle East, Western Asia, North Africa, West Africa, South America, Southwestern North America, Southwestern and Eastern Europe.). Adobe had been in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern United States, Mesoamerica , and

1947-697: The Andes for several thousand years. Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages (eighth century BCE onwards). Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. The word adobe / ə ˈ d oʊ b iː / has existed for around 4,000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from

2006-608: The Mexican War of Independence the main rebels were Afro-Mexicans Juan Bruno and Francisco Atilano Santa María, but their effect was limited as there was little access to firearms. In 1878, much of the land came under the control of the Casa Miller enterprise, an association between Pérez Reguera and Carlos A. Miller. The enterprise consisted of a soap factory, and land where they raised cattle and grew cotton. The holdings include about 125,000 hectares, centered on Cuajinicuilapa. The town

2065-595: The Middle Egyptian ( c.  2000 BC ) word ḏbt "mud brick" (with vowels unwritten). Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian and finally to Coptic ( c.  600 BC ), where it appeared as ⲧⲱⲃⲉ tōbə . This was adopted into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu , with the definite article al- attached to the root tuba . This was assimilated into the Old Spanish language as adobe [aˈdobe] , probably via Mozarabic . English borrowed

2124-480: The Nahuatl phrase cuauhxinicuilli-atl-pan , which means “in the river of the cuajiicuil plant (a kind of edible legumbre). From before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuajinicuilapa was the province of Ayacastla, with the town of Igualapa as capital. After Independence, the capital moved to Ometepec. The area was conquered by 1522 by Pedro de Alvarado , who established the Spanish town of Acatlán. In 1531, an uprising by

2183-501: The Tlapaneca caused many to flee the area. During the 16th century, the area lost almost all of its indigenous population due to war, oppression and disease. The loss of indigenous labor prompted the Spanish to bring African slaves over the colonial period for 300 years. Most of the slaves headed for Mexico arrived in Veracruz. However, those that managed to escape began to make their way to

2242-582: The War of Independence , Chilpancingo was crucial to the insurgent cause as its population participated actively and decisively in their favor, and it became a strategic point for military action in the south. Chilpancingo was very important to Mexican history because it was here where the National Congress met under José María Morelos y Pavón in 1813 during the War of Independence. General Nicolás Catalán , husband of

2301-603: The Costa Chica area. The area was dedicated to livestock, with much of the land owned by Mateo Anaus y Mauleon. The isolation of the area and the lack of workers led to an arrangement between Anaus and the runaway slaves, trading cheap labor for sanctuary. Over time the Cuajinicuilapa area was home to a number of communities of escaped slaves and their descendants. Many of these worked as cowboys or with leather. Over time, many of these intermarried with indigenous and whites. During

2360-471: The Costa Chica with dancers wearing devil's mask and dancing with wild, exaggerated movements. They are attended by assistants with whips. From 30 October to 1 November, the dancers leave the cemetery to dance, eat offerings of food and more. They spend three days in the streets with dance, music, and theatrical antics before “returning” to the grave. The two main dancers represent the chief of the devils called Tenango or Pancho along with his wife called La Minga,

2419-632: The Monte Alto, Portezuela and Albufera Salinitas. As the vicinity is placed in a subduction zone, it is prone to earthquakes (see: M5.2 earthquake near Cuajinicuilapa). It has a high level of socioeconomic marginalization and is the poorest in Guerrero. About forty two percent of homes have adobe walls, about fifty seven percent have cement and less than one percent have wood or laminate walls. Sixty one percent have running water, about thirty six percent have drainage and eighty nine percent have electricity. About eighty two percent own their own homes. Much of

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2478-510: The architects Franklin & Kump Associates, who built the Carmel High School , which used his Post-adobe system. The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to be below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for

2537-409: The city entered a severe social crisis with the start of a student popular movement at the Autonomous University of Guerrero , protests which led to a general strike at the institution and later swarmed to various forces and social sectors of the city and the state. The main objective was to diminish the power of the state government and seek autonomy for the college. On 27 April 2009 an earthquake with

2596-405: The first museum in Mexico dedicated to the descendants of African slaves in Mexico and their history. It is located in the center of the town, near the main plaza. Cuajinicuilapa is the largest Afro-Mexican community in the Costa Chica region of Guerrero with most of the population of this ethnicity. The municipal government promotes Cuajinicuilapa as the “municipio negro” or “black municipality” as

2655-412: The foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of 300 lbf/in (2.07 newton/mm ) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain

2714-401: The ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish. Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about 25 by 36 cm (10 by 14 in) in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for

2773-424: The independence war heroine Antonia Nava de Catalán , was made commander of the state of Guerrero on 24 January 1828. The family settled in Chilpancingo, where both Nicolás and Antonia later died. In 1853, Chilpancingo was declared the provisional capital of the state, due to an epidemic that struck the then capital of Tixtla , and regional ecclesiastical organizational changes were made at the same time. In 1870 it

2832-405: The mother of devils who also appears in other regional dances. The dance as various influences including African and Catholic. While the dance and dressing up as devils were exclusively for men, this has changed as many have left to work outside of the Costa Chica. Women and children have now participated in the annual ritual. Other dances in the municipality include El Torito (the little bull), which

2891-605: The municipality is grassland suitable for agriculture and livestock. The principal cash crops are hibiscus and sesame seed . Other crops include palm trees and corn. Fishing is important on the coast proper, especially in Punta Maldonado. There are some deposits of iron and aluminum oxide. The main tourist attraction is Punta Maldonado , also known as El Faro. It is followed by the Santo Domingo Lagoon, which has extensive mangrove and Barra de Pío. The name comes from

2950-504: The pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud in situ , resulting in a different typology known as rammed earth . In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass , but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not reinforced. Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include

3009-406: The surrounding air ( convection ) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates,

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3068-562: The thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking. The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called vigas , lie atop

3127-434: The use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a lintel is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide

3186-418: The wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied. To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure

3245-553: The word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to mudbrick construction. In more modern English usage, the term adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in New Mexico , regardless of the construction method. An adobe brick is a composite material made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or dung . The soil composition typically contains sand , silt and clay . Straw

3304-426: The years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured 8 by 4 by 12 inches (20 cm × 10 cm × 30 cm) weighing about 25 pounds (11 kg); in other contexts the size is 10 by 4 by 14 inches (25 cm × 10 cm × 36 cm) weighing about 35 pounds (16 kg). The maximum sizes can reach up to 100 pounds (45 kg); above this weight it becomes difficult to move

3363-482: Was again declared capital by Governor Francisco O. Arce, due to the opposition led by General Jiménez, who was in possession of the official seat of government at Tixtla. It was not until 1871, when the state legislature agreed to a change of venue, that the capital was moved again from Chilpancingo. During the Mexican Revolution , Chilpancingo was deeply troubled and had political and administrative importance as

3422-445: Was applied on top of the latillas, then 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied to the roof. The dirt was contoured into a low slope to a downspout aka a 'canal'. When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create a waterproof membrane. Once a year it was necessary to pull the weeds from the roof and re-slope the dirt as needed. Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of

3481-614: Was home to whites. The blacks lived in small huts with thatched roofs based on African-style construction. Product from the enterprise was shipped through Tecoanapa with destination such as Salina Cruz , Manzanillo and Acapulco. On March 20, 2012, a 7.4 earthquake hit the area , which caused two deaths, severe damage to over 500 homes and partial damage to another thousand. Chilpancingo Chilpancingo de los Bravo (commonly shortened to Chilpancingo ; Spanish pronunciation: [tʃilpanˈsiŋɡo] ; Nahuatl : Chilpantzinco ( pronounced [t͡ʃiɬpanˈt͡siŋko] ))

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