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81-408: Cryptomnesia was first documented in 1874, involving the medium Stainton Moses , who during a séance believed himself to be in spiritual contact with two brothers from India who had recently been killed. Despite the apparent communication, he was unable to ascertain any details which had not already been given in newspaper coverage of the story the week before. Researchers concluded that Moses had read

162-489: A count noun in the singular, refers to some particular method of interpretation (see, in contrast, double hermeneutic ). Hermeneutics is derived from the Greek word ἑρμηνεύω ( hermēneuō , "translate, interpret"), from ἑρμηνεύς ( hermeneus , "translator, interpreter"), of uncertain etymology ( R. S. P. Beekes (2009) suggests a Pre-Greek origin). The technical term ἑρμηνεία ( hermeneia , "interpretation, explanation")

243-552: A "special hermeneutic of empathy" to dissolve the classic philosophic issue of "other minds" by putting the issue in the context of the being-with of human relatedness. (Heidegger himself did not complete this inquiry.) Advocates of this approach claim that some texts, and the people who produce them, cannot be studied by means of using the same scientific methods that are used in the natural sciences , thus drawing upon arguments similar to those of antipositivism . Moreover, they claim that such texts are conventionalized expressions of

324-490: A century before Nietzsche wrote. This is considered to be neither purposeful plagiarism nor pure coincidence: Nietzsche's sister confirmed that he had indeed read the original account when he was younger, likely sometime between ages 12 and 15; Nietzsche's youthful intellectual capabilities, his later cognitive degeneration, and his accompanying psychological deterioration (specifically, his increasing grandiosity as manifested in his later behavior and writings) together strengthen

405-494: A different image, or a whole new sub-plot. If you ask him what prompted the digression, he will not be able to tell you. He may not even have noticed the change, though he has now produced material that is entirely fresh and apparently unknown to him before. Yet it can sometimes be shown convincingly that what he has written bears a striking similarity to the work of another author — a work that he believes he has never seen." Jorge Luis Borges 's story, " Pierre Menard, Author of

486-565: A hermeneutics that is based upon Heidegger's concepts. His work differs in many ways from that of Gadamer. Karl-Otto Apel (b. 1922) elaborated a hermeneutics based on American semiotics . He applied his model to discourse ethics with political motivations akin to those of critical theory . Jürgen Habermas (b. 1929) criticized the conservatism of previous hermeneutists, especially Gadamer, because their focus on tradition seemed to undermine possibilities for social criticism and transformation. He also criticized Marxism and previous members of

567-408: A review published in 1820, Goethe wrote, "Byron's tragedy Manfred was to me a wonderful phenomenon, and one that closely touched me. This singular intellectual poet has taken my Faustus to himself, and extracted from it the strangest nourishment for his hypochondriac humour. He has made use of the impelling principles in his own way, for his own purposes, so that no one of them remains the same; and it

648-404: Is a 1967 song by Naomi Shemer . Some of the song's melody is based on a Basque lullaby, Pello Joxepe , composed by Juan Francisco Petriarena ' Xenpelar ' (1835–1869). Shemer heard a rendition by Spanish singer/songwriter Paco Ibáñez , who visited Israel in 1962 and performed the song to a group that included her and Nehama Hendel . She later acknowledged hearing Hendel perform Pello Joxepe in

729-555: Is also evident in the medieval Zohar . In Christianity, it can be seen in Mariology . The discipline of hermeneutics emerged with the new humanist education of the 15th century as a historical and critical methodology for analyzing texts. In a triumph of early modern hermeneutics, the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery. This

810-557: Is expressed in his work. Dilthey divided sciences of the mind ( human sciences ) into three structural levels: experience, expression, and comprehension. In the 20th century, Martin Heidegger 's philosophical hermeneutics shifted the focus from interpretation to existential understanding as rooted in fundamental ontology, which was treated more as a direct—and thus more authentic—way of being-in-the-world ( In-der-Welt-sein ) than merely as "a way of knowing." For example, he called for

891-449: Is expressed, is not based on empathy , understood as a direct identification with the Other . Interpretation, on a hermeneutical conception of empathy involves an indirect or mediated understanding that can only be attained by placing human expressions in their historical context. Thus, understanding is not a process of reconstructing the state of mind of the author, but one of articulating what

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972-460: Is more likely to be claimed as one's own, ostensibly because the person is too busy preparing for their own turn to properly monitor source information. As explained by Carl Jung , in Man and His Symbols , "An author may be writing steadily to a preconceived plan, working out an argument or developing the line of a story, when he suddenly runs off at a tangent. Perhaps a fresh idea has occurred to him, or

1053-400: Is more likely to occur when the ability to properly monitor sources is impaired. For example, people are more likely to falsely claim ideas as their own when they were under high cognitive load at the time they first considered the idea. Cryptomnesia increases when people are away from the original source of the idea, and decreases when participants are specifically instructed to pay attention to

1134-465: Is particularly on this account that I cannot enough admire his genius." Byron was apparently thankful for the compliment; however, he claimed that he had never read Faustus . J. M. Barrie , the creator of Peter Pan , was aware of the occurrence of cryptomnesia. In Peter and Wendy Wendy sews Peter's shadow back on and this makes him very happy but he immediately thinks he has attached the shadow himself: "How clever I am," he crowed rapturously, "oh,

1215-507: Is the study of the principles of interpretation of the Bible. While Jewish and Christian biblical hermeneutics have some overlap, they have very different interpretive traditions. The early patristic traditions of biblical exegesis had few unifying characteristics in the beginning but tended toward unification in later schools of biblical hermeneutics. Augustine offers hermeneutics and homiletics in his De doctrina christiana . He stresses

1296-408: Is to unfold the nature of individual understanding. Gadamer pointed out that prejudice is an element of our understanding and is not per se without value. Indeed, prejudices, in the sense of pre-judgements of the thing we want to understand, are unavoidable. Being alien to a particular tradition is a condition of our understanding. He said that we can never step outside of our tradition—all we can do

1377-471: Is try to understand it. This further elaborates the idea of the hermeneutic circle . New hermeneutic is the theory and methodology of interpretation to understand Biblical texts through existentialism . The essence of new hermeneutic emphasizes not only the existence of language but also the fact that language is eventualized in the history of individual life. This is called the event of language. Ernst Fuchs , Gerhard Ebeling , and James M. Robinson are

1458-524: The Buddha ( Buddhavacana ) and other enlightened beings. Buddhist hermeneutics is deeply tied to Buddhist spiritual practice and its ultimate aim is to extract skillful means of reaching spiritual enlightenment or nirvana . A central question in Buddhist hermeneutics is which Buddhist teachings are explicit, representing ultimate truth, and which teachings are merely conventional or relative. Biblical hermeneutics

1539-456: The sands of time , Footprints which perhaps another—and I was the other! It is my debt to Washington Irving that exercises my conscience, and justly so, for I believe plagiarism was rarely carried farther. I chanced to pick up the Tales of a Traveller some years ago with a view to an anthology of prose narrative, and the book flew up and struck me: Billy Bones, his chest, the company in the parlour,

1620-436: The sociologist Max Weber . Hans-Georg Gadamer 's hermeneutics is a development of the hermeneutics of his teacher, Heidegger. Gadamer asserted that methodical contemplation is opposite to experience and reflection. We can reach the truth only by understanding or mastering our experience. According to Gadamer, our understanding is not fixed but rather is changing and always indicating new perspectives. The most important thing

1701-602: The Ark as a “type” of the Christian church that God designed from the start. This type of interpretation is more often known as mystical interpretation. It claims to explain the events of the Bible and how they relate to or predict what the future holds. This is evident in the Jewish Kabbalah , which attempts to reveal the mystical significance of the numerical values of Hebrew words and letters. In Judaism, anagogical interpretation

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1782-535: The London Spiritualist Alliance. Moses published Psychography. A Treatise on One of the Objective Forms of Psychic or Spiritual Phenomena in 1878. In it, he coins the term "psychography" (from psycho and graphy ) for the spiritualist concept of channeling messages from the dead via automatic writing (also known as "independent writing", "direct writing" or "spirit writing"). Moses was one of

1863-468: The New Testament might be clarified by comparing their possible meanings with contemporary Christian practices. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) explored the nature of understanding in relation not just to the problem of deciphering sacred texts but to all human texts and modes of communication. The interpretation of a text must proceed by framing its content in terms of the overall organization of

1944-499: The Ninth Circuit, affirmed the principle. In 1987, Australian author Colleen McCullough published a novella, The Ladies of Missalonghi . Critics alleged that she had plagiarised The Blue Castle , a 1926 novel by L. M. Montgomery . McCullough acknowledged having read Montgomery's works in her youth, but attributed the similarities to subconscious recollection. In Interpretation and Overinterpretation , Umberto Eco describes

2025-531: The Quixote ," is a meta-fictive enactment of cryptomnesia. This work is written in the form of a review or literary critical piece about (the nonexistent) Pierre Menard. It begins with a brief introduction and a listing of all of Menard's work. Borges's "review" describes this 20th-century French writer who has made an effort to go further than mere "translation" of Don Quixote, but to immerse himself so thoroughly as to be able to actually "re-create" it, line for line, in

2106-527: The Scriptures. Although Augustine endorses some teaching of the Platonism of his time, he recasts it according to a theocentric doctrine of the Bible. Similarly, in a practical discipline, he modifies the classical theory of oratory in a Christian way. He underscores the meaning of diligent study of the Bible and prayer as more than mere human knowledge and oratory skills. As a concluding remark, Augustine encourages

2187-411: The adaptability of the concept in his formulation of the ego ideal (the "ego" as Other) in refashioning the "case" of Margarite Pantaine ( Case of Aimée ). Her experiences of self-"misrecognition" provided a structure for Lacan's key subsequent theories of The Symbolic and the mirror stage . The word cryptomnesia is a compound of Greek cryptos (hidden, concealed, secret) and mnesia (memory). In

2268-410: The authors is believed to correspond to the literal meaning. Literal hermeneutics is often associated with the verbal inspiration of the Bible. Moral interpretation searches for moral lessons which can be understood from writings within the Bible. Allegories are often placed in this category. Allegorical interpretation states that biblical narratives have a second level of reference that is more than

2349-552: The being of entities is what determines entities as entities) and for Heidegger's hermeneutic realism (the thesis that (a) there is a nature in itself and science can give us an explanation of how that nature works, and (b) that (a) is compatible with the ontological implications of our everyday practices). Philosophers that worked to combine analytic philosophy with hermeneutics include Georg Henrik von Wright and Peter Winch . Roy J. Howard termed this approach analytic hermeneutics . Other contemporary philosophers influenced by

2430-416: The boundaries of the sacred . A divine message must be received with implicit uncertainty regarding its truth. This ambiguity is an irrationality; it is a sort of madness that is inflicted upon the receiver of the message. Only one who possesses a rational method of interpretation (i.e., a hermeneutic) could determine the truth or falsity of the message. Folk etymology places its origin with Hermes ,

2511-410: The cleverness of me!" Peter exhibits a number of other clinically accurate peculiarities of memory suggesting that Barrie regarded Peter's behavior as a memory disorder rather than self-centredness. Helen Keller compromised her own and her teacher 's credibility with an incident of cryptomnesia which was misinterpreted as plagiarism . The Frost King , which Keller wrote out of buried memories of

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2592-406: The empirical study of family interactions as well as reflection upon the procedures of interpretation employed in our research. For the time being we shall refer to it as objective hermeneutics in order to distinguish it clearly from traditional hermeneutic techniques and orientations. The general significance for sociological analysis of objective hermeneutics issues from the fact that, in

2673-402: The experience of the author. Thus, the interpretation of such texts will reveal something about the social context in which they were formed, and, more significantly, will provide the reader with a means of sharing the experiences of the author. The reciprocity between text and context is part of what Heidegger called the hermeneutic circle . Among the key thinkers who elaborated this idea was

2754-416: The fairy tale The Frost Fairies by Margaret Canby , read to her four years previously, left Keller a nervous wreck, and unable to write fiction for the rest of her life. Robert Louis Stevenson refers to an incident of cryptomnesia that took place during the writing of Treasure Island , and that he discovered to his embarrassment several years afterward: ... I am now upon a painful chapter. No doubt

2835-598: The first empirical study of cryptomnesia, people in a group took turns generating category examples (e.g., kinds of birds: parrot, canary, etc.). They were later asked to create new exemplars in the same categories that were not previously produced, and also to recall which words they had personally generated. People inadvertently plagiarized about 3–9% of the time either by regenerating another person's thought or falsely recalling someone's thought as their own. Similar effects have been replicated using other tasks such as word search puzzles and in brainstorming sessions. Cryptomnesia

2916-535: The first vice-presidents of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR). Other early members included Frederic W. H. Myers , Henry Sidgwick and Edmund Gurney . In 1886 and 1887 in a series of publications the SPR exposed the tricks of the medium William Eglinton . Because of this, some spiritualist members including Moses resigned from the SPR. Moses endorsed the spirit photography of Édouard Isidore Buguet , however, Buguet

2997-476: The group's "You See Me Crying" on the radio and, not remembering that it was their own song, suggested that the group record a cover version, to which guitarist Joe Perry replied, "That's us, fuckhead!". The precedent in United States copyright law, since 1976, has been to treat alleged cryptomnesia no differently from deliberate plagiarism. The seminal case is Bright Tunes Music v. Harrisongs Music, where

3078-528: The hermeneutic tradition include Charles Taylor ( engaged hermeneutics ) and Dagfinn Føllesdal . Wilhelm Dilthey broadened hermeneutics even more by relating interpretation to historical objectification. Understanding moves from the outer manifestations of human action and productivity to the exploration of their inner meaning. In his last important essay, "The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Manifestations of Life" (1910), Dilthey made clear that this move from outer to inner, from expression to what

3159-456: The importance of humility in the study of Scripture. He also regards the duplex commandment of love in Matthew 22 as the heart of Christian faith. In Augustine's hermeneutics, signs have an important role. God can communicate with the believer through the signs of the Scriptures. Thus, humility, love, and the knowledge of signs are an essential hermeneutical presupposition for a sound interpretation of

3240-432: The interpretation of biblical texts , wisdom literature , and philosophical texts . As necessary, hermeneutics may include the art of understanding and communication. Modern hermeneutics includes both verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as semiotics , presuppositions , and pre-understandings. Hermeneutics has been broadly applied in the humanities , especially in law, history and theology. Hermeneutics

3321-456: The interpreter and preacher of the Bible to seek a good manner of life and, most of all, to love God and neighbor. There is traditionally a fourfold sense of biblical hermeneutics: literal, moral, allegorical (spiritual), and anagogical. Encyclopædia Britannica states that literal analysis means “a biblical text is to be deciphered according to the ‘plain meaning’ expressed by its linguistic construction and historical context.” The intention of

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3402-441: The likelihood that he happened to commit the passage to memory upon initially reading it and later, after having lost his memory of encountering it, assumed that his own mind had created it. In some cases, the line between cryptomnesia and zeitgeist (compare the concept of multiple discovery in science) may be somewhat hazy. Readers of Lord Byron 's closet drama Manfred noted a strong resemblance to Goethe 's Faust . In

3483-500: The loss in precision and objectivity necessitated by the requirement of research economy can be condoned and tolerated in the light of prior hermeneutically elucidated research experiences. Bernard Lonergan 's (1904–1984) hermeneutics is less well known, but a case for considering his work as the culmination of the postmodern hermeneutical revolution that began with Heidegger was made in several articles by Lonergan specialist Frederick G. Lawrence . Paul Ricœur (1913–2005) developed

3564-455: The marvels reported at [Moses] seances were, in fact, produced by the medium's own hands: that it was he who tilted the table and produced the raps, that the scents, the seed pearls, and the Parian statuettes were brought into the room in his pockets: and that the spirit lights were, in fact, nothing more than bottles of phosphorised oil. Nor would the feats described have required any special skill on

3645-439: The medium's part. It was suggested that Moses looked up obituaries, daily newspapers, biographies or The Annual Register to research the history of deceased people. Joseph McCabe described Moses as a "deliberate impostor" and wrote that his apports and all of his feats were the result of trickery. Science historian Sherrie Lynne Lyons wrote that the glowing or light-emitting hands in séances could easily be explained by

3726-426: The mid-1960s, and that she had unconsciously based some of the melody on the lullaby. Shemer felt very bad when she found that it was similar to Pello Joxepe , but when Ibáñez was asked how he felt about the issue, he replied he was "glad it helped in some way", and that he was not angry, nor did he perceive it as plagiarism. In 1984, when Aerosmith were recording Done With Mirrors , lead singer Steven Tyler heard

3807-542: The most remote part of my soul, as in a grave, until the moment it emerged again (I do not know for what reason) and I believed I had invented it. Stainton Moses William Stainton Moses (1839 – 5 September 1892) was an English cleric and spiritualist medium . He promoted spirit photography and automatic writing , and co-founded what became the College of Psychic Studies . He resisted scientific examination of his claims, which have generally been demolished. Moses

3888-417: The mythological Greek deity who was the 'messenger of the gods'. Besides being a mediator among the gods and between the gods and men, he led souls to the underworld upon death. Hermes was also considered to be the inventor of language and speech, an interpreter, a liar, a thief and a trickster. These multiple roles made Hermes an ideal representative figure for hermeneutics. As Socrates noted, words have

3969-410: The origin of their ideas. False claims are also more prevalent for ideas originally suggested by persons of the same sex, presumably because the perceptual similarity of the self to a same-sex person exacerbates source confusion. In other studies it has been found that the timing of the idea is also important: if another person produces an idea immediately before the self produces an idea, the other's idea

4050-426: The original 17th century Spanish. Thus, "Pierre Menard" is always used to raise questions and discussion about the nature of accurate translation or, in this case, the hermeneutics of cryptomnesia. Jung gives the following example in Man and His Symbols . Friedrich Nietzsche 's book Thus Spoke Zarathustra includes an almost word for word account of an incident also included in a book published about 1835, half

4131-422: The parrot once belonged to Robinson Crusoe . No doubt the skeleton is conveyed from Poe . I think little of these, they are trifles and details; and no man can hope to have a monopoly of skeletons or make a corner in talking birds. The stockade, I am told, is from Masterman Ready . It may be, I care not a jot. These useful writers had fulfilled the poet's saying: departing, they had left behind them Footprints on

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4212-456: The people, events and things that are explicitly mentioned. One type of allegorical interpretation is known as typological , where the key figures, events, and establishments of the Old Testament are viewed as “types” (patterns). In the New Testament this can also include foreshadowing of people, objects, and events. According to this theory, readings like Noah's Ark could be understood by using

4293-449: The power to reveal or conceal and can deliver messages in an ambiguous way. The Greek view of language as consisting of signs that could lead to truth or to falsehood was the essence of Hermes, who was said to relish the uneasiness of those who received the messages he delivered. Summaries of the principles by which Torah can be interpreted date back to, at least, Hillel the Elder , although

4374-533: The publisher of " He's So Fine ," written and composed by Ronald Mack , demonstrated to the court that George Harrison borrowed substantial portions of his song " My Sweet Lord " from "He's So Fine." The Court imposed damages despite a claim that the copying was subconscious. The ruling was upheld by the Second Circuit in ABKCO Music v. Harrisongs Music, and the case Three Boys Music v. Michael Bolton, upheld by

4455-456: The rediscovery of an antique book among his large collection, which was eerily similar to the pivotal object in his novel The Name of the Rose . I had bought that book in my youth, skimmed through it, realized that it was exceptionally soiled, and put it somewhere and forgot it. But by a sort of internal camera I had photographed those pages, and for decades the image of those poisonous leaves lay in

4536-464: The relation of hermeneutics with problems of analytic philosophy , there has been, particularly among analytic Heideggerians and those working on Heidegger's philosophy of science , an attempt to try and situate Heidegger's hermeneutic project in debates concerning realism and anti-realism : arguments have been presented both for Heidegger's hermeneutic idealism (the thesis that meaning determines reference or, equivalently, that our understanding of

4617-512: The rubbing of oil of phosphorus on the hands. Moses was caught twice with a bottle of phosphorus. A psychologist Théodore Flournoy wrote that before admitting a supernatural explanation for the automatic writings of Moses, "we must first of all be sure that he himself was not capable of elaborating them subconsciously. To my mind, he was quite capable." Many of Moses's statements about ancient history have proven to be false. Researcher Georgess McHargue has suggested that Moses' mediumship

4698-497: The rules for the various rituals that had to be performed precisely. The foundational text is the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini (ca. 3rd to 1st century BCE) with a major commentary by Śabara (ca. the 5th or 6th century CE). The Mimamsa sutra summed up the basic rules for Vedic interpretation. Buddhist hermeneutics deals with the interpretation of the vast Buddhist literature , particularly those texts which are said to be spoken by

4779-435: The scholars who represent the new hermeneutics. The method of Marxist hermeneutics has been developed by the work of, primarily, Walter Benjamin and Fredric Jameson . Benjamin outlines his theory of the allegory in his study Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels ("Trauerspiel" literally means "mourning play" but is often translated as "tragic drama"). Fredric Jameson draws on Biblical hermeneutics, Ernst Bloch , and

4860-461: The social sciences justifies qualitative approaches as exploratory or preparatory activities, to be succeeded by standardized approaches and techniques as the actual scientific procedures (assuring precision, validity, and objectivity), we regard hermeneutic procedures as the basic method for gaining precise and valid knowledge in the social sciences. However, we do not simply reject alternative approaches dogmatically. They are in fact useful wherever

4941-434: The social sciences, interpretive methods constitute the fundamental procedures of measurement and of the generation of research data relevant to theory. From our perspective, the standard, nonhermeneutic methods of quantitative social research can only be justified because they permit a shortcut in generating data (and research "economy" comes about under specific conditions). Whereas the conventional methodological attitude in

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5022-454: The story but forgotten that he had read it, instead mistaking the partial memory for a message from the spirit world. Under the pen name "M.A. Oxon", Moses published the following books on spiritualism: Moses also edited the periodical Light and wrote on spiritualism for Human Nature . Hermeneutics Hermeneutics ( / h ɜːr m ə ˈ nj uː t ɪ k s / ) is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially

5103-516: The story but forgotten that he had read it, instead mistaking the partial memory for a message from the spirit world. The word was first used by the psychiatrist Théodore Flournoy , in reference to the case of medium Hélène Smith (Catherine-Élise Müller) to suggest the high incidence in psychism of "latent memories on the part of the medium that come out, sometimes greatly disfigured by a subliminal work of imagination or reasoning, as so often happens in our ordinary dreams." Carl Gustav Jung treated

5184-522: The subject in his thesis "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena" (1902) and in an article, "Cryptomnesia" (1905), suggested the phenomenon in Friedrich Nietzsche 's Thus Spoke Zarathustra . The idea was studied or mentioned by Géza Dukes, Sándor Ferenczi and Wilhelm Stekel as well as by Sigmund Freud in speaking of the originality of his inventions. Jacques Lacan illustrated

5265-606: The term " objective hermeneutics " in his Objective Knowledge (1972). In 1992, the Association for Objective Hermeneutics (AGOH) was founded in Frankfurt am Main by scholars of various disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. Its goal is to provide all scholars who use the methodology of objective hermeneutics with a means of exchanging information. In one of the few translated texts of this German school of hermeneutics, its founders declared: Our approach has grown out of

5346-508: The text, some expounded the law given in the text, and others found secret or mystical levels of understanding. Vedic hermeneutics involves the exegesis of the Vedas , the earliest holy texts of Hinduism . The Mimamsa was the leading hermeneutic school and their primary purpose was understanding what Dharma (righteous living) involved by a detailed hermeneutic study of the Vedas. They also derived

5427-547: The texts themselves. Martin Luther and John Calvin emphasized scriptura sui ipsius interpres (scripture interprets itself). Calvin used brevitas et facilitas as an aspect of theological hermeneutics . The rationalist Enlightenment led hermeneutists, especially Protestant exegetists, to view Scriptural texts as secular classical texts. They interpreted Scripture as responses to historical or social forces so that, for example, apparent contradictions and difficult passages in

5508-557: The thirteen principles set forth in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael are perhaps the best known. These principles ranged from standard rules of logic (e.g., a fortiori argument [known in Hebrew as קל וחומר –  kal v'chomer ]) to more expansive ones, such as the rule that a passage could be interpreted by reference to another passage in which the same word appears ( Gezerah Shavah ). The rabbis did not ascribe equal persuasive power to

5589-516: The various principles. Traditional Jewish hermeneutics differed from the Greek method in that the rabbis considered the Tanakh (the Jewish Biblical canon) to be without error. Any apparent inconsistencies had to be understood by means of careful examination of a given text within the context of other texts. There were different levels of interpretation: some were used to arrive at the plain meaning of

5670-490: The whole inner spirit, and a good deal of the material detail of my first chapters—all were there, all were the property of Washington Irving. But I had no guess of it then as I sat writing by the fireside, in what seemed the spring-tides of a somewhat pedestrian inspiration; nor yet day by day, after lunch, as I read aloud my morning's work to the family. It seemed to me original as sin ; it seemed to belong to me like my right eye ... Jerusalem of Gold ( ירושלים של זהב )

5751-784: The work of Friedrich Schleiermacher ( Romantic hermeneutics and methodological hermeneutics ), August Böckh (methodological hermeneutics), Wilhelm Dilthey ( epistemological hermeneutics ), Martin Heidegger ( ontological hermeneutics , hermeneutic phenomenology , and transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology ), Hans-Georg Gadamer (ontological hermeneutics), Leo Strauss ( Straussian hermeneutics ), Paul Ricœur (hermeneutic phenomenology), Walter Benjamin ( Marxist hermeneutics ), Ernst Bloch (Marxist hermeneutics), Jacques Derrida ( radical hermeneutics , namely deconstruction ), Richard Kearney ( diacritical hermeneutics ), Fredric Jameson (Marxist hermeneutics), and John Thompson ( critical hermeneutics ). Regarding

5832-476: The work of Northrop Frye , to advance his theory of Marxist hermeneutics in his influential The Political Unconscious . Jameson's Marxist hermeneutics is outlined in the first chapter of the book, titled "On Interpretation" Jameson re-interprets (and secularizes) the fourfold system (or four levels) of Biblical exegesis (literal; moral; allegorical; anagogical) to relate interpretation to the mode of production , and eventually, history. Karl Popper first used

5913-416: The work. Schleiermacher distinguished between grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation. The former studies how a work is composed from general ideas; the latter studies the peculiar combinations that characterize the work as a whole. He said that every problem of interpretation is a problem of understanding and even defined hermeneutics as the art of avoiding misunderstanding. Misunderstanding

5994-422: Was a founding member, together with Rogers, of the London Spiritualist Alliance, afterwards the College of Psychic Studies . Moses died on 5 September 1892. Moses performed in dark conditions only with a small select circle of friends, he did not allow psychical researchers to attend his séances and refused to be tested. The psychical researcher Frank Podmore wrote: It seems reasonable to conclude that all

6075-774: Was born in Donington near Lincoln . He was educated at Bedford School , University College School, London and Exeter College, Oxford . He was ordained as a priest of the Church of England by Bishop Samuel Wilberforce in 1870. Moses attended his first séance with Lottie Fowler in 1872. Charles Williams and Daniel Dunglas Home were the next mediums he visited. Five months after his introduction to spiritualism , he claimed to have experienced levitation . The automatic scripts of Moses began to appear in his books Spirit Teachings and Spirit Identity . The scripts date from 1872 to 1883 and fill 24 notebooks. All but one have been preserved by

6156-525: Was done through intrinsic evidence of the text itself. Thus hermeneutics expanded from its medieval role of explaining the true meaning of the Bible. However, biblical hermeneutics did not die off. For example, the Protestant Reformation brought about a renewed interest in the interpretation of the Bible, which took a step away from the interpretive tradition developed during the Middle Ages back to

6237-455: Was exposed as a fraud. Moses had supported Buguet in an article for Human Nature in May 1875. After Burguet was exposed later in the same year, Moses insisted that Buguet was still a genuine medium and he had been bribed to make a false confession. The case has been cited by researchers as an example of spiritualists willing to believe and refusing to accept evidence of fraud. In 1884, Moses

6318-402: Was initially applied to the interpretation, or exegesis , of scripture , and has been later broadened to questions of general interpretation. The terms hermeneutics and exegesis are sometimes used interchangeably. Hermeneutics is a wider discipline which includes written, verbal, and nonverbal communication. Exegesis focuses primarily upon the word and grammar of texts . Hermeneutic, as

6399-590: Was introduced into philosophy mainly through the title of Aristotle 's work Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας ("Peri Hermeneias"), commonly referred to by its Latin title De Interpretatione and translated in English as On Interpretation . It is one of the earliest (c. 360  BCE ) extant philosophical works in the Western tradition to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit and formal way. The early usage of "hermeneutics" places it within

6480-400: Was the result of self-suggestion and unconscious trickery. The first documented instance of cryptomnesia occurred in 1874 with Moses, after his described spiritual contact with a pair of dead Indian brothers matched a newspaper report from the week before, and despite his claimed communication he could ascertain no details not given in that report. Researchers concluded that Moses had read

6561-402: Was to be avoided by means of knowledge of grammatical and psychological laws. During Schleiermacher's time, a fundamental shift occurred from understanding not merely the exact words and their objective meaning, to an understanding of the writer's distinctive character and point of view. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century hermeneutics emerged as a theory of understanding ( Verstehen ) through

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