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96-590: The need for a large stadium in Memphis was first proposed by Clarence Saunders , founder of Piggly Wiggly and owner of the Clarence Saunders Tigers, a semi-professional football team. After success against other established teams, it was thought that Memphis would join the fledgling National Football League , but the Great Depression wiped out Saunders, and Memphis missed out on professional football for

192-411: A mellah was surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. In contrast, rural mellahs were separate villages whose sole inhabitants were Jews. In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the lives of Persian Jews : …they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…; for they are considered as unclean creatures… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with

288-512: A precedent . 2 years later (with NS-styret in the ministries of Norway) Norwegian police arrested citizens at the addresses where radios had previously been confiscated from Jews. In 1938, under pressure from the Nazis, the fascist regime , which was led by Benito Mussolini , passed a series of racial laws which instituted an official segregationist policy in the Italian Empire , this policy

384-516: A yellow ribbon or a star of David , and along with Romas (Gypsies), they were subjected to discrimination by the racial laws. Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients and Jewish professors were not permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition, Jews were not allowed to use any form of public transportation, besides the ferry, and they were only allowed to shop in Jewish stores from 3–5 pm. After Kristallnacht ("The Night of Broken Glass"),

480-524: A Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life... If...

576-681: A Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered. On 16 May 1940 in Norway, the Administrasjonsrådet asked the Rikskommisariatet why radio receivers had been confiscated from Jews in Norway. That Administrasjonsrådet thereafter "quietly" accepted racial segregation between Norwegian citizens, has been claimed by Tor Bomann-Larsen . Furthermore, he claimed that this segregation "created

672-572: A feeling of distrust between [the] races. Feelings between Whites and Blacks were so tense, even the jails were segregated." Elected in 1912, President Woodrow Wilson tolerated the extension of segregation throughout the federal government that was already underway. In World War I , Blacks were drafted and served in the United States Army in segregated units . The U.S. military was still heavily segregated in World War II. The air force and

768-444: A front lobby, the continuous-path middle salesroom, and rear stockroom. The store incorporated shopping baskets , self-service branded products, and checkouts at the front. Removing unnecessary clerks, creating elaborate aisle displays, and rearranging the store to force customers to view all of the merchandise in a continuous path, were just some of the characteristics of the early Piggly Wiggly stores. The store stocked four times

864-479: A large amount of Piggly Wiggly stock in hopes of driving up the price. He flamboyantly declared his intent in newspaper ads. Saunders bought Piggly Wiggly stock until he had orders for 196,000 of the 200,000 outstanding shares. The firm's share price went from a low of $ 39 in late 1922 to $ 124 by March 20, 1923. Pressured by the 'bears', the New York Stock Exchange declared a 'corner' existed (see cornering

960-747: A massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals of the Ming Dynasty who defected to the Manchu were often given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General Li Yongfang after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to

1056-460: A minority, which conquered China for the Qing. It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing conquest of China, they made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule. Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor-general in the time of the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors , and also

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1152-494: A new track and other track and field amenities. The outer brick wall, original gates and entrances were retained and the name remains "Crump Stadium." High school sporting competitions resumed in the fall of 2007, including high school football regular season and playoff games . 35°08′02″N 90°01′06″W  /  35.133913°N 90.01826°W  / 35.133913; -90.01826 Clarence Saunders (grocer) Clarence Saunders (August 9, 1881 – October 14, 1953)

1248-603: A new venue. The wood bleachers from the south side of Crump Stadium were relocated to the fairgrounds and installed. That field was located in the area now paved as parking between Libertyland and the Mid-South Coliseum . State Teachers College and Southwestern shared this field beginning in 1937 with high school and junior high teams. Both State Teachers and Southwestern had been playing at Hodges Field. In 1937, Southwestern moved five games to Crump Stadium, and State Teachers played two. Both squads played three games at

1344-582: A permit was made illegal, extending pass laws that had already curtailed black movement. Thirdly, under the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act in 1953, amenities in public areas, like hospitals, universities and parks, were labeled separately according to particular races. In addition, the Bantu Education Act in 1953 segregated national education in South Africa as well. Additionally, the government of

1440-468: A person of one race to work as a servant for a member of another race. Racial segregation has generally been outlawed worldwide. Segregation is defined by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance as "the act by which a (natural or legal) person separates other persons on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds without an objective and reasonable justification, in conformity with

1536-662: A pivotal essay by Herbert Kier on the recommendations for race legislation which devoted a quarter of its pages to U.S. legislation—from segregation, race-based citizenship, immigration regulations, and anti-miscegenation . This directly inspired the two principal Nuremberg Laws —the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law. The ban on interracial marriage (anti-miscegenation) prohibited sexual relations and marriages between people classified as " Aryan " and "non-Aryan". Such relationships were called Rassenschande (race defilement). At first

1632-630: A political apartheid". Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that "in contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates", this "colonial apartheid society" was unique to Algeria. This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection and ensuing independence war . The Land Apportionment Act of 1930 passed in Southern Rhodesia (now known as Zimbabwe )

1728-499: A prolific reader and autodidact . At age 19, Saunders had moved to Clarksville, Tennessee , where he started working in the wholesale grocery business for John Hurst and Joseph Boillin, rapidly rising in the business. In Clarksville Saunders met Carolyn Amy Walker, the daughter of a prominent Illinois attorney. Despite their contrasting backgrounds, they were married on 6 October 1903. The following year they moved to Memphis, Tennessee , where Saunders took up positions working for

1824-500: A sawmill and limestone kiln during the summer and at a general store during the holidays. He received only two years of formal education in Palmyra, before quitting school entirely at 14 to work full-time for the general store. Saunders worked a variety of occupations over the next five years throughout the region, including shop assistant, night watchman and sawmill laborer. Recognizing the need for further education to advance, Saunders became

1920-643: A yellow with purple border and letter " P " (for Polen/Polish) cloth identifying tag sewn to their clothing, subjected to a curfew , and banned from public transportation . While the treatment of factory workers or farm hands often varied depending on the individual employer, Polish laborers, as a rule, were compelled to work longer hours for lower wages than Western Europeans – in many cities, they were forced to live in segregated barracks behind barbed wire. Social relations with Germans outside work were forbidden, and sexual relations ( Rassenschande or "racial defilement") were punishable by death. Racial segregation

2016-424: Is known as the nadir of American race relations . While the U.S. Supreme Court majority in the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case explicitly permitted " separate but equal " facilities (specifically, transportation facilities), Justice John Marshall Harlan , in his dissent , protested that the decision would "stimulate aggressions ... upon the admitted rights of colored citizens", "arouse race hate", and "perpetuate

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2112-626: Is of a voluntary nature." Racial segregation can amount to the international crime of apartheid and a crime against humanity under the 2002 Rome Declaration of Statute of the International Criminal Court . Wherever multiracial communities have existed, racial segregation has also been practiced. Only areas with extensive interracial marriage , such as Hawaii and Brazil , seem to be exempt from it, despite some social stratification within them. Several laws which enforced racial segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed by

2208-510: The Catholic Church and taken to Belgium. Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century, France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has been described as "quasi- apartheid ". The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and Berber Algerians to apply for French citizenship only if they abandoned their Muslim identity; Azzedine Haddour argues that this established "the formal structures of

2304-638: The Great Depression . In the late 1920s, to promote his newest grocery venture, Saunders founded a professional football team. The full name of the team was the Clarence Saunders Sole Owner of My Name Tigers, but it was usually just called The Tigers. The Tigers played professional teams from around the country, including the Chicago Bears and the Green Bay Packers . In 1929, the Tigers beat

2400-820: The Han Chinese during the Tang dynasty . In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uyghurs to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese. In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton , he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright. The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of colour", which

2496-538: The Population Registration Act in 1950 classified residents in South Africa into four racial groups: "black", "white", " Coloured ", and "Indian" and noted their racial identities on their identifications. Secondly, the Group Areas Act in 1950 assigned different regions according to different races. People were forced to live in their corresponding regions and the action of passing the boundaries without

2592-688: The Waldorf Astoria New York and instead forced to travel up to the event in a freight elevator . The first black Academy Award recipient, actress Hattie McDaniel , was not permitted to attend the premiere of Gone with the Wind at Loew's Grand Theatre in Atlanta because of Georgia's segregation laws. During the 12th Academy Awards ceremony at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, McDaniel

2688-732: The 14th and 15th centuries. In the Russian Empire , Jews were restricted to the so-called Pale of Settlement , the Western frontier of the Russian Empire which roughly corresponds to the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania , Belarus , Moldova and Ukraine. By the early 20th century, the majority of Europe's Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement. From the beginning of the 15th century, Jewish populations in Morocco were confined to mellahs . In cities,

2784-696: The 1910 Immigration Act permitted the government to prohibit the entry of immigrants "belonging to any race deemed unsuited to the climate or requirements of Canada, or of immigrants of any specified class, occupation or character." Racial segregation practices extended to many areas of employment in Canada. Black men and women in Quebec were historically relegated to the service sector regardless of their educational attainment. White business owners and even provincial and federal government agencies often did not hire black people, with explicit rules preventing their employment. When

2880-469: The City Commission recommended expanding the stadium again. This met with much controversy and opposition from the school board, which needed the land the stadium sat on for expansion of Central High School and to meet open space requirements. In November 1962, the City Commission approved spending of $ 1.4 million to increase capacity to over 45,000 and a contract was awarded. But less than a year later,

2976-474: The City of Memphis chipped in another $ 44,305. City engineer Will Fowler was placed in charge of the project and stated at the time that he envisioned further expansion by creating a bowl which would seat 30,000. Fowler would play an aggressive role in frequent upgrades to the facility over time. 1936 also saw the first intercollegiate football game featuring a Memphis team, Southwestern (now Rhodes College ), which at

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3072-567: The Green Bay Packers 20–6. In 1930 the National Football League invited The Tigers to join their organization, but Saunders refused their offer. It is said that Saunders disbanded his football team because he did not like to travel to other cities for away games. On November 22, 1935, Saunders chartered the prototype of an automated store. He named it Keedoozle, which some assumed stood for "key does it all", but Saunders stated

3168-645: The Group Areas Act. In 1994, Nelson Mandela won in the first multiracial democratic election in South Africa. His success fulfilled the ending of apartheid in South African history. In the United States, racial segregation was mandated by law in some states and enforced along with anti-miscegenation laws (prohibitions against interracial marriage ), until the U.S. Supreme Court led by Chief Justice Earl Warren struck down racial segregation. After

3264-511: The Jews were fined 1,000,000,000  ℛ︁ℳ︁ for the damage which was done by Nazi troops and SS members. Jews , Poles , and Roma were subjected to genocide as "undesirable" racial groups in The Holocaust . The Nazis established ghettos in order to confine Jews and sometimes, they confined Romas in tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe , turning them into de facto concentration camps . The Warsaw Ghetto

3360-690: The Manchu in 1618. Jurchen (Manchu) women married most of the Han Chinese defectors in Liaodong. Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o), Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao), Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei). A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between

3456-464: The Manchus followed the governmental structure of the preceding Ming dynasty , their ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han Chinese civilian officials who had passed the highest levels of the state examinations , and because of the small number of Manchus, this insured that a large fraction of them would be government officials. From 1952, and even more so after

3552-598: The Nazis divided the population into different groups, each with different rights, food rations, allowed housing strips in the cities, public transportation, etc. In an effort to split the Polish people's identity, they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of Kashubians and Gorals ( Goralenvolk ), based on these groups' alleged "Germanic component". During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were forced to wear something that identified them as Jewish, such as

3648-509: The Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75%. It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only

3744-454: The US, selling $ 5 billion worth of goods." At the time of his death, Saunders was developing plans for another automatic store system called the "Foodelectric". The Foodelectric concept is a clear predecessor to self checkout . Saunders described it as follows: The store operates so automatically that the customer can collect her groceries herself, wrap them and act as her own cashier. It eliminates

3840-549: The basic store design. Patent #1,297,405 was filed on February 5, 1918 and granted on March 18, 1919, which covered his means of tagging prices next to the grocery item. He was also granted a patent for his idea of giving shoppers a printed receipt from the adding machine tape. Saunders then listed Piggly Wiggly shares on the New York Stock Exchange in February 1922. In April of 1922, the company sold 50,000 new shares on

3936-494: The black population in Canada was significantly less than the black population in the United States, severe restrictions on black people existed in all forms, particularly in immigration, employment access and mobility. Unlike in the United States, racial segregation in Canada applied to all non-whites and was historically enforced through laws, court decisions and social norms with a closed immigration system that barred virtually all non-whites from immigrating until 1962. Section 38 of

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4032-679: The checkout crush, cuts overhead expenses and enables a small staff to handle a tremendous volume... I can handle a $ 2 million volume with only eight employees. The central invention was a primitive computer, or "shopping brain" which was loaned to the shopper, who then roamed among the store's glass-enclosed items. The store, which was to be located two blocks from the first Piggly Wiggly store in downtown Memphis, never opened. Clarence and Carolyn divorced on September 27, 1928, and Clarence married Patricia Houston Bamberg on December 20, 1928. During World War II , Saunders made toy wagons, baby strollers and broomsticks. He died in 1953. Saunders

4128-473: The company, his Pink Palace , and all the rest of his property—to his creditors ." The Pink Palace mansion eventually became Memphis' first museum in 1930. In 1928, Saunders went on to create the Clarence Saunders, Sole Owner of My Name Stores, Inc. grocery chain. The chain, which was known to the public as Sole Owner stores, initially flourished. However the chain went into bankruptcy in 1930 during

4224-465: The complex and expensive system could not compete with shopping carts . Saunders developed two versions of the Keedoozle. The first was in 1937, which was abandoned when the US entered World War II . Saunders returned to the idea in 1948, opening an improved version. Saunders sold twelve franchises of the revised concept. In 1949 he predicted "In five years there will be a thousand Keedoozles throughout

4320-583: The dual role of selling wholesale supplies to farms and plantations as well, such that wholesaling was one of the largest industries in Memphis and one of its most lucrative. In February 1913, he created United Stores, Inc., with 21 retail customers, giving Shanks, Phillips control of wholesale purchasing and advertising. A jointly owned United Store was opened in June 1914. Saunders' three children, Lee, Clarence Jr., and Amy Carolyn, were born in 1903, 1909 and 1912 respectively. On September 6, 1916, Saunders launched

4416-491: The early 1920s Saunders began construction of a pink marble mansion in Memphis. Then, in early 1923, a group of franchised outlets in New York failed. Merrill Lynch (*needs citation) and other speculators on Wall Street attempted a bear raid on the price of Piggly Wiggly stock, gambling the price would fall. With a loan of $ 10 million from a number of Southern bankers, plus a bit of his own money, Saunders counteracted by buying

4512-719: The eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend." The apartheid system carried out by Afrikaner minority rule enacted a nationwide social policy "separate development" with the National Party victory in the 1948 general election , following the "colour bar"-discriminatory legislation dating back to the beginning of the Union of South Africa and the Boer republics before which, while repressive to Black South Africans along with other minorities, had not gone nearly so far. Apartheid laws can be generally divided into following acts. Firstly,

4608-514: The end of British rule in 1962, Indian people living in Uganda existed in segregated ethnic communities with their own schools and healthcare. Indians constituted 1% of the population but earned a fifth of the national income and controlled 90% of the country's businesses. In 1972, the President of Uganda Idi Amin ordered the expulsion of the country's Indian minority with disastrous consequences for

4704-538: The ending of apartheid and suggested fighting against racial segregation by various methods. During the following decades, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred, including those of the Black Consciousness Movement , students' protests, labor strikes, and church group activism etc. In 1991, the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed, repealing laws enforcing racial segregation, including

4800-402: The entrance passage of the building where the teams turned left or right respectively. 1939 saw more expansion and renovation as the north side wooden bleachers were demolished and concrete stands were erected. The new north stands held just under 10,000 people and cost $ 186,000. The north stands were 42 rows high as opposed to the south stands which were 46 rows high. In 1940 a 600-seat section

4896-504: The fascist propaganda director, art critic and journalist Margherita Sarfatti , who was one of Mussolini's mistresses. Rita Levi-Montalcini , who would successively win the Nobel Prize for Medicine , was forbidden to work at the university. Upon the passage of the racial law, Albert Einstein cancelled his honorary membership in the Accademia dei Lincei . After 1943, when Northern Italy

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4992-589: The first time. In early 1932, plans for a large concrete stadium with a capacity of 25,000 persons was presented to the Mid-South Fair Association with the promise that if it were built, efforts would be made to land "big-time events of the tennis world". On July 17, 1932, the Memphis Park Commission gave tentative approval for a 25,000-seat stadium to be created at the Fairgrounds. Funds for

5088-522: The greatest severity, and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt… For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans… If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully… If

5184-432: The introduction of the 'provvedimenti per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race), many of the best Italian scientists quit their jobs, and some of them also left Italy. Amongst these scientists were the internationally-known physicists Emilio Segrè , Enrico Fermi (whose wife was Jewish), Bruno Pontecorvo , Bruno Rossi , Tullio Levi-Civita , mathematicians Federigo Enriques and Guido Fubini and even

5280-425: The key was inserted in the slot. This action, recorded the item on punched tape in the key, and automatically moved the item via conveyor belt to the front of the store. Upon reaching the exit gate at the front of the store, an attendant deciphered the customer's tape and produced the bill. After payment, the customer's groceries were delivered, bagged and wrapped. Pilot stores operated in Memphis and Chicago, but

5376-515: The labour movement took hold in Canada near the end of the 19th century, workers began organizing and forming trade unions with the aim of improving the working conditions and quality of life for employees. However, black workers were systematically denied membership to these unions, and worker's protection was reserved exclusively for whites. In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish , i.e. Slavic , origin were not allowed to join some guilds . According to Wilhelm Raabe , "down into

5472-547: The laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were later extended to " Gypsies , Negroes ". Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a Nazi concentration camp , while non-Aryans could face the death penalty. To preserve the so-called purity of the German blood, after the war began, the Nazis extended the race defilement law to include all foreigners (non-Germans). Under the General Government of occupied Poland in 1940,

5568-529: The local economy. The government confiscated some 5,655 firms, ranches, farms, and agricultural estates, along with cars, homes and other household goods. Jews in Europe were generally forced, by decree or by informal pressure, to live in highly segregated ghettos and shtetls . In 1204, the papacy required Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and it also required them to wear distinctive clothing. Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout Europe during

5664-552: The marines had no Blacks enlisted in their ranks. There were Blacks in the Navy Seabees . The army had only five African-American officers. In addition, no African-American would receive the Medal of Honor during the war, and their tasks in the war were largely reserved to noncombat units. Black soldiers had to sometimes give up their seats in trains to the Nazi prisoners of war . A club which

5760-628: The market ), and gave the 'bears' five days rather than the usual 24 hours to deliver the stock Saunders had bought. The additional time meant "a flood of stock poured [in] from distant points and gave the shorts opportunity to deliver." In the words of John Brooks , "...in mid-August, with the September 1st deadline for repayment of two and a half million dollars on his loan staring him in the face and with nothing like that amount of cash either on hand or in prospect, he resigned as president of Piggly Wiggly Stores, Inc., and turned over his assets—his stock in

5856-521: The market at $ 43 a share. In 1921, there were 615 stores in 200 cities and 40 states. By 1923, Piggly Wiggly had grown into 1,267 stores, 667 owned by the company and the rest owned by franchisees . The company employed 250 people in Memphis. Stock in Piggly Wiggly Stores, Inc., paid a dividend of 11%. The success of Piggly Wiggly encouraged a raft of imitators, including Handy Andy stores, Helpy Selfy stores, Mick-or-Mack stores and Jitney Jungle , all of which operated under patented systems. In

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5952-430: The new fairgrounds facility. The first game played in Crump Stadium by State Teachers was against Tennessee Tech in November 1937. The Teachers would spend the next 27 years at Crump Stadium. New dressing rooms were constructed under the south stands in 1938. To reach the dressing rooms, teams had to go down steps leading to a tunnel underneath the cinder track and box seats to a second set of stairs which led back up to

6048-443: The newspaper advertising war waged by Saunders and Crump. Their feud was personal and striking, since few in Memphis had dared challenge Crump, one of the legendary city bosses in American politics. After 1928 Saunders' fortunes declined, and he did not write political ads again. Racial segregation Racial segregation is the separation of people into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life. Segregation can involve

6144-427: The outset, day-night double headers were the norm at the stadium. Despite this type scheduling, the first year of operation ran a deficit, with maintenance and operating costs running from $ 2,100 to $ 2,200 and gate receipts and concessions totaling only $ 951. After a 1936 game between Mississippi and Tennessee drew a record crowd of 11,000, the city decided that it should aggressively market itself as "neutral ground" to

6240-404: The passage of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing Slavery in the United States , Jim Crow laws were introduced to codify racial discrimination . The laws mandated strict segregation of the races. Though many of these laws were passed shortly after the Civil War ended, they only became formalized after the end of the Reconstruction era in 1877. The period that followed the Reconstruction era

6336-423: The post of governors, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from the posts. To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Manchu Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, it

6432-448: The project was halted in favor of a new stadium at the fairgrounds. After Memphis Memorial Stadium was built, control of the facility was transferred back to the Memphis City Schools . The Memphis school district closed Crump Stadium to competition after the 2004 high school football season. In the summer of 2006 the stadium underwent demolition and was replaced with a stadium more appropriately sized for high school football complete with

6528-432: The proposed definition of discrimination. As a result, the voluntary act of separating oneself from other people on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not constitute segregation". According to the UN Forum on Minority Issues, "The creation and development of classes and schools providing education in minority languages should not be considered impermissible segregation if the assignment to such classes and schools

6624-532: The regional teams and promote bringing big games to Memphis. The decision was made to remove the wooden bleachers on the south side of the field, replace them with concrete 46 rows high and increase capacity to 15,000. Control of the facility was transferred to the Park Commission on August 25, 1936, and $ 100,000 was allocated for the project. A news release from the WPA stated "California has its " Rose Bowl ", Louisiana has its " Sugar Bowl " and now Memphis...is to have its " Cotton Bowl ." The WPA provided $ 90,050 and

6720-530: The school board voted to name the new stadium for congressman and former mayor E. H. Crump. Mr. Crump accepted the honor saying he was "pleased" but felt such honors were best served posthumously. The next day, final approval of $ 35,000 was granted by the Civil Works Authority and work on the project began. By August 1934, the scope of the project had been increased to include a cinder running track and lighting consisting of six 80' towers each holding eight 1000-watt lamps, enabling night football to be played. From

6816-478: The self-service revolution in the United States by opening the first self-service Piggly Wiggly store, at 79 Jefferson Street in Memphis, Tennessee . Saunders had renovated his United Store, removing old countertops, and replacing them with characteristic turnstiles at the entrance and exit, and cabinets arranged along a continuous path, which ended at a cashier stand complete with adding machine and cash register. The 1,125 square feet (104.5 m ) store included

6912-525: The spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. Specifically, it may be applied to activities such as eating in restaurants, drinking from water fountains, using public toilets, attending schools, going to films, riding buses, renting or purchasing homes or renting hotel rooms. In addition, segregation often allows close contact between members of different racial or ethnic groups in hierarchical situations, such as allowing

7008-413: The stadium were to be raised from the public through a "Buy a Barrel of Cement" project. However, that project was shelved in favor of a new field at Central High School . On August 20, 1932, plans for a new stadium for the City of Memphis were drawn up and approved by the city managers. Funding for this Depression-era project was achieved when, on December 16, 1933, a 3-acre (12,000 m) athletic field

7104-561: The time enforced the pass laws , which deprived Black South Africans of their right to travel freely within their own country. Under this system Black South Africans were severely restricted from urban areas, requiring authorisation from a white employer to enter. Uprisings and protests against apartheid appeared immediately when apartheid arose. As early as 1949, the Youth League of the African National Congress (ANC) advocated

7200-460: The time was acknowledged to be on the threshold of the "big time". There were 40 games played at Crump Stadium that season At the same time Crump Stadium was being expanded, it was decided to create a new field at the fairgrounds. Funds were acquired from the WPA for this new lighted field which Mayor Watkins Overton said would help take pressure off Crump Stadium by giving events with smaller attendance

7296-512: The triumphant visit of King Baudouin to the colony in 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) worked to create a "Belgian-Congolese community", in which Black and White people were to be treated as equals. Regardless, anti-miscegenation laws remained in place, and between 1959 and 1962 thousands of mixed-race Congolese children were forcibly deported from the Congo by the Belgian government and

7392-537: The two ethnic groups. Geng Zhongming , a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under Shunzhi and marry Aisin Gioro women, with Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong and Prince Abatai's (Hong Taiji) granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong. The Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were made out of Han Chinese who defected to

7488-565: The variety of items normally found in an ordinary grocery store, but did not offer fresh meat in the original store. A refrigerator separated two of the aisles, offering butter and cheese. Bins offered fruits and vegetables, while flour and other bulk goods were pre-packaged and placed near the end of the shopper's journey through the aisles. The concept of the "Self-Serving Store" patent was filed by Saunders on October 21, 1916, and granted on October 9, 1917 as Patent #1,242,872. Three new patent applications followed, including Patent #1,357,521 for

7584-459: The wholesale grocers Shanks, Phillips & Co, as well as William Cole Early. Memphis in this period was booming — the population had soared from 33,000 in 1880 to more than 100,000 by the time the Saunders' arrived. A major river point and railroad junction between the north and south, Memphis was a key distributor of goods to towns and cities throughout the region, whilst cotton merchants often served

7680-676: Was occupied by the Nazis , Italian Jews were rounded up and became victims of the Holocaust . German praise for America's system of institutional racism , which was expressed in Adolf Hitler 's Mein Kampf , was continuous throughout the early 1930s. The U.S. was the global leader of codified racism, and its race laws fascinated the Germans. The National Socialist Handbook for Law and Legislation of 1934–35, edited by Hitler's lawyer Hans Frank , contains

7776-465: Was a segregationist measure that governed land allocation and acquisition in rural areas, making distinctions between Blacks and Whites. One highly publicised legal battle occurred in 1960 involving the opening of a new theatre that was to be open to all races; the proposed unsegregated public toilets at the newly built Reps Theatre in 1959 caused an argument called "The Battle of the Toilets" . After

7872-519: Was added in the southwest corner along with a new separate entrance and toilet facilities for blacks , allowing those citizens access to the stadium for the first time. Capacity was increased to just over 25,000 and the city was able to attract marquee match-ups from throughout the region. Match-ups between Tennessee, Mississippi, Mississippi State and Arkansas were frequent with even a Texas-Arkansas game played at Crump Stadium. Crump Stadium would remain in essentially that configuration until 1960, when

7968-518: Was an American grocer who first developed the modern retail sales model of self service . His ideas have had a massive influence on the development of the modern supermarket . Saunders worked for most of his life trying to develop a truly automated store, developing Piggly Wiggly , Keedoozle , and Foodelectric store concepts. Saunders was born on a farm in Amherst County, Virginia , to Abram Warwick and Mary Gregory. Saunders' mother died when he

8064-567: Was an administrative division and not related to the Mongol Bannermen in the Eight Banners). These restrictions did not apply to Han Bannermen , who were settled in Manchuria by the Qing. Han bannermen were differentiated from Han civilians by the Qing and treated differently. The Qing Dynasty started colonizing Manchuria with Han Chinese later on in the dynasty's rule, but the Manchu area

8160-456: Was approved by state and federal Civil Works Authority and construction was completed in 1934. The stadium's original configuration was 7,000 seat capacity on wood bleachers 15 rows high with space for another 4,000 on temporary seating. The stadium was under the control of the City Board of Education, but was available to all levels of teams, from high school to professional On February 27, 1934,

8256-564: Was central to the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s, the Cotton Club in Harlem , New York City was a whites-only establishment, where Blacks (such as Duke Ellington ) were allowed to perform, but they were only allowed to perform in front of a white audience. In the reception to honor his success at the 1936 Summer Olympics , Jesse Owens was not permitted to enter through the main doors of

8352-434: Was especially directed against Italian Jews . This policy enforced various segregationist norms, like the laws which banned Jews from teaching or studying in ordinary schools and universities, banned Jews from owning industries that were reputed to be very important to the nation, banned Jews from working as journalists, banned Jews from joining the military, and banned Jews from marrying non-Jews. As an immediate consequence of

8448-467: Was five. Abram had served in the Confederate army under Stonewall Jackson but had struggled financially in the aftermath of the war. In 1891, his father moved the family to Montgomery County, Tennessee , where his father worked as a laborer and sharecropper on a plantation near Palmyra, Tennessee . Saunders worked the plantation as well throughout his early childhood. By age 11, he was also working in

8544-409: Was just made up, as was Piggly Wiggly. The Keedoozle was an automated store, similar to very large vending machine , or Automat . Merchandise was displayed as single units, each within a glass cabinet with a keyhole beneath. Customers entering the store were given a key that they placed in the keyhole below the goods they wished to buy. The quantity desired was determined by the number of times

8640-746: Was one of the first to use newspaper advertising to campaign for a political candidate, at least in Tennessee. He campaigned for Austin Peay , an acquaintance from his hometown, Clarksville, Tennessee . Peay won in 1922 and gave credit to Saunders' advertising. When Governor Peay ran for a third term in 1926 (Tennessee governors held office for two-year terms at the time) Saunders inexplicably opposed him, using newspaper ads to denounce his former friend. In 1928 Saunders backed Henry Horton for Governor against Hill McAlister . Memphis political leader E. H. Crump backed McAlister. The candidates were completely overshadowed by

8736-881: Was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The Qing implemented a policy of segregation between the Bannermen of the Eight Banners (Manchu Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, Han Bannermen) and Han Chinese civilians . This ethnic segregation had cultural and economic reasons: intermarriage was forbidden to keep up the Manchu heritage and minimize sinicization . Han Chinese civilians and Mongol civilians were banned from settling in Manchuria. Han civilians and Mongol civilians were banned from crossing into each other's lands. Ordinary Mongol civilians in Inner Mongolia were banned from even crossing into other Mongol Banners (a banner in Inner Mongolia

8832-641: Was required to sit at a segregated table at the far wall of the room; the hotel had a no-blacks policy, but allowed McDaniel in as a favor. Her final wish to be buried in Hollywood Forever Cemetery was denied because the graveyard was restricted to Whites only. On 11 September 1964, John Lennon announced the Beatles would not play to a segregated audience in Jacksonville , Florida . City officials relented following this announcement. A contract for

8928-576: Was still separated from modern-day Inner Mongolia by the Outer Willow Palisade , which kept the Manchu and the Mongols in the area separate. The policy of segregation applied directly to the banner garrisons, most of which occupied a separate walled zone within the cities in which they were stationed. Manchu Bannermen, Han Bannermen, and Mongol Bannermen were separated from the Han civilian population. While

9024-607: Was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people. The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000. Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens were transported to the Reich for forced labour (in all, about 12 million forced laborers were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany ). Although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles , along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior, were subject to deeper discriminatory measures. They were forced to wear

9120-491: Was used to describe foreigners, such as " Iranians , Sogdians , Arabs , Indians , Malays , Sumatrans ", among others. The Qing dynasty was founded not by Han Chinese, who form the majority of the Chinese population, but by Manchus , who are today an ethnic minority of China. The Manchus were keenly aware of their minority status, however, it was only later in the dynasty that they banned intermarriage. Han defectors played

9216-932: Was widespread and deeply imbedded into the fabric of Canadian society prior to the Canadian constitution of 1982. Multiple court decisions, including one from the Supreme Court of Canada in 1939, upheld racial segregation as valid. The last black specifically segregated school closed in Ontario in 1965, while the last black specifically segregated school closed in Nova Scotia in 1983. The last racially segregated Indigenous school closed in 1996 in Saskatchewan. Canada has had multiple white only neighbourhoods and cities, white only public spaces, stores, universities, hospitals, employment, restaurants, theatres, sports arenas and universities. Though

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