Misplaced Pages

#175824

120-507: Critical infrastructure , or critical national infrastructure ( CNI ) in the UK, describes infrastructure considered essential by governments for the functioning of a society and economy and deserving of special protection for national security . Critical infrastructure has traditionally been viewed as under the scope of government due to its strategic importance, yet there's an observable trend towards its privatization, raising discussions about how

240-475: A Louisiana state representative and ALEC national chairman, said, "We are a very, very conservative organization... We're just espousing what we really believe in." Craig Horn, a North Carolina state representative and ALEC member, said of ALEC in 2013, "It's a lightning rod organization because it has a decidedly conservative bent—there’s no doubt about it." Although ALEC originally focused on social issues such as abortion , which it opposed, in more recent years

360-496: A comparable assessment of countries' fiscal policies, promoting transparency and accountability at the international level. In addition, in an econometric study published in the Economic Modelling journal, an analysis on government energy technology spending showed that spending on the renewable energy sector created five more jobs per million dollars invested than spending on fossil fuels . Since sustainable infrastructure

480-783: A conceptual alpine earth-fill dam in Switzerland; the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline in Turkey; part of the Gasunie national gas storage and distribution network in the Netherlands; the port infrastructure of Thessaloniki, Greece; and an industrial district in the region of Tuscany, Italy. The outcome of the stress testing included the definition of critical components and events and risk mitigation strategies, which are formulated and reported to stakeholders. Infrastructure Especially in light of

600-426: A connection between cities, transportation for people and goods, and protection for land against flooding and erosion, they only last for 50 to 100 years. Many were built within the last 50 years, which means many infrastructures need substantial maintenance to continue functioning. However, concrete is not sustainable. The production of concrete contributes up to 8% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. A tenth of

720-589: A constitutional scholar. ALEC also has ties to the State Policy Network (SPN), a national association of conservative and libertarian think-tanks. SPN is a member of ALEC, and ALEC is an associate member of the SPN. SPN encourages its members to join ALEC, and many members of SPN are also members of ALEC. Some of the think tanks in the SPN write model legislation, which then is introduced at ALEC private meetings. ALEC

840-484: A coordinated focus on both creating the methods of transportation themselves and providing them with networks that are equally or more efficient than existing car networks such as aging highway systems. Another solution to transition into a more sustainable infrastructure is using more sustainable materials. A material is sustainable if the needed amount can be produced without depleting non-renewable resources. It also should have low environmental impacts by not disrupting

960-743: A gala event at the National Portrait Gallery . ALEC is a member of the advisory board of Project 2025 , a collection of conservative and right-wing policy proposals from the Heritage Foundation to reshape the United States federal government and consolidate executive power should the Republican nominee win the 2024 presidential election . As of December 2013, ALEC had more than 85 members of Congress and 14 sitting or former governors who were considered "alumni". The majority of

1080-494: A higher level of relative sustainability than their traditional counterparts. In a sustainable city, urban resilience as well as infrastructure reliability must both be present. Urban resilience is defined by a city's capacity to quickly adapt or recover from infrastructure defects, and infrastructure reliability means that systems must work efficiently while continuing to maximize their output. When urban resilience and infrastructure reliability interact, cities are able to produce

1200-553: A lobbyist for Verizon Communications (previously GTE ) and as an ALEC board member. By 2011, the number of ALEC legislative members had reached 2,000, including more than 25 percent of all state legislators nationwide. Approximately 1,000 bills based on ALEC language were being introduced in state legislatures every year, with approximately 20% of those bills being enacted. Prior to 2011, ALEC's practices and its ties to specific pieces of legislation were little known outside of political circles. In July 2011, The Nation published

1320-465: A memo that opposed "the current homosexual movement", portrayed homosexuality as a result of a conscious choice, and said that pedophilia was "one of the more dominant practices within the homosexual world". ALEC spokesman Bill Meierling discussed the document in 2013 and said that ALEC does not draft model bills on social issues, and added, "I'm also sad that the critics would not acknowledge that organizations change over time." Duane Parde served as

SECTION 10

#1733085043176

1440-648: A model bill with the same wording. In the wake of the killing of Trayvon Martin in 2012, ALEC's support for Stand Your Ground laws ultimately led to the departure of high-profile corporate members such as Coca-Cola, Microsoft, Bank of America, and General Motors. After Obama's victory in the 2008 presidential election , ALEC's internal publication (which it provides to paying members) asserted, without evidence, that voter fraud contributed to his victory. ALEC said that groups like ACORN had engaged in voter-registration fraud whereby fake voter registrations were submitted. Prior to 2012, legislation based on ALEC model bills

1560-532: A networking tool among certain state legislators, allowing them to research conservative policies implemented in other states. Many ALEC legislators say the organization converts campaign rhetoric and nascent policy ideas into legislative language. ALEC's activities, while legal, received public scrutiny after news reports in 2012 from outlets such as The New York Times and Bloomberg Businessweek described ALEC as an organization that gave corporate interests outsized influence. Resulting public pressure led to

1680-698: A new business activist movement in the 1970s. ALEC was co-founded by conservative activist Paul Weyrich , who also co-founded the Heritage Foundation . Henry Hyde , who later became a U.S. congressman, and Lou Barnett, who later became national political director of Ronald Reagan 's Political Action Committee, also helped to found ALEC. Early members included a number of state and local politicians who went on to statewide office, including Bob Kasten , Tommy Thompson , and Scott Walker of Wisconsin, John Engler of Michigan, Terry Branstad of Iowa, Mitch Daniels of Indiana, and John Boehner and John Kasich of Ohio. Several members of Congress also were involved in

1800-499: A number of legislators and corporations withdrawing from the organization. In 2022, however, Insider reported that a political commentator addressing the July policy summit of ALEC stated that if the objective of the conservative constitutional convention movement that "is gaining momentum" largely out of public view is successful in its effort to rewrite the constitution , the USA will become

1920-755: A point of contention with the organization. Google Executive Chairman Eric Schmidt remarked that ALEC was "just literally lying" about recent global climate change . Yahoo! , Uber , and Lyft also announced withdrawals later that same week. Occidental Petroleum and Northrop Grumman also cut ties with ALEC. In response to the departure of Northrop Grumman, an ALEC spokesperson said, "Like any other membership group, membership in ALEC ebbs and flows, and in 2014 we gained far more private-sector members than we lost." T-Mobile and BP severed ties with ALEC in 2015. In 2023, ALEC held its fiftieth anniversary celebrations in Washington, D.C. The celebrations included

2040-519: A rating of "D+" on its infrastructure. This aging infrastructure is a result of governmental neglect and inadequate funding. As the United States presumably looks to upgrade its existing infrastructure, sustainable measures could be a consideration of the design, build, and operation plans. Public infrastructure is that owned or available for use by the public (represented by the government ). It includes: A way to embody personal infrastructure

2160-403: A record high in 2010, partially due to governments' implemented economic stimulus measures with minimal consideration of the environmental consequences. The concern is whether this same pattern will repeat itself. The post-COVID-19 period could determine whether the world meets or misses the emissions goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement and limits global warming to 1.5 degrees C to 2 degrees C. As

2280-624: A region or district would be included with infrastructure, but the private irrigation systems on individual land parcels would be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. Service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term " public works " includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as public buildings, such as schools and courthouses. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services . Public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by

2400-505: A result of the COVID-19 epidemic, a host of factors could jeopardize a low-carbon recovery plan: this includes reduced attention on the global political stage (2020 UN Climate Summit has been postponed to 2021), the relaxing of environmental regulations in pursuit of economic growth, decreased oil prices preventing low-carbon technologies from being competitive, and finally, stimulus programs that take away funds that could have been used to further

2520-402: A result, they soak 30% more water than conventional gardens. Bioswales are planted in paved areas like parking lots or sidewalks and are made to allow for overflow into the sewer system by trapping silt and other pollutants, which are normally left over from impermeable surfaces. Both rain gardens and bioswales mitigate flood impacts and prevent stormwater from polluting local waterways; increase

SECTION 20

#1733085043176

2640-566: A series of articles produced in collaboration with the Center for Media and Democracy (CMD) that showcased some of the ALEC model bills and described ties to the Koch family , and CMD launched a website "ALEC Exposed" that documented more than 800 of ALEC model bills, the legislators and corporations that had helped to draft them, and the states that enacted them. The joint effort, and particularly its coverage of ALEC's push for tough voter ID laws , prompted

2760-514: A specified area by using property tax increases. In order to facilitate investment of the private sector in developing countries' infrastructure markets, it is necessary to design risk-allocation mechanisms more carefully, given the higher risks of their markets. The spending money that comes from the government is less than it used to be. From the 1930s to 2019, the United States went from spending 4.2% of GDP to 2.5% of GDP on infrastructure. These under investments have accrued, in fact, according to

2880-792: A specified standard of service by the continuing replacement and refurbishment of its components". Civil defense planners and developmental economists generally refer to both hard and soft infrastructure, including public services such as schools and hospitals , emergency services such as police and fire fighting, and basic services in the economic sector . The notion of infrastructure-based development combining long-term infrastructure investments by government agencies at central and regional levels with public private partnerships has proven popular among economists in Asia (notably Singapore and China), mainland Europe, and Latin America. Military infrastructure

3000-498: A staff of approximately 30. ALEC's bylaws specify that "... full membership shall be open to persons dedicated to the preservation of individual liberty, basic American values and institutions, productive free enterprise, and limited representative government, who support the purposes of ALEC, and who serve, or formerly serve, as members of a state or territorial legislature, the United States Congress, or similar bodies outside

3120-449: A total of US$ 24.9 billion. In irrigation , governments represent almost all spending. In transport and energy a majority of investment is government spending. In ICT and water supply and sanitation , the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, between them aid, the private sector, and non- OECD financiers exceed government spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though

3240-446: A wide-reaching critical infrastructure protection program in place since 1996. Its Patriot Act of 2001 defined critical infrastructure as those "systems and assets, whether physical or virtual, so vital to the United States that the incapacity or destruction of such systems and assets would have a debilitating impact on security, national economic security, national public health or safety, or any combination of those matters." In 2014

3360-458: Is "SPN's sister organisation" according to The Guardian . ALEC is also a member of the Atlas Network , a global organization of free-market think tanks. As of 2012, ALEC is registered as a charity in 37 states. The ALEC website states that its goal is to advance "the fundamental principles of free-market enterprise, limited government, and federalism". In 2003, Donald Ray Kennard , then

3480-428: Is a rooftop that is partially or completely covered with growing vegetation planted over a membrane. It also includes additional layers, including a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. There are several categories of green roofs, including extensive (have a growing media depth ranging from two to six inches) and intensive (have a growing media with a depth greater than six inches). One benefit of green roofs

3600-520: Is a rotating position, with a new legislator appointed to the position each year. As of 2012 , 28 out of 33 of its chairs had been Republicans. ALEC has nine task forces that generate model bills that members may customize and introduce for debate in their own state legislatures. Private sector members effectively have veto power over model bills drafted by the task forces. The ALEC Public Safety and Elections Task Force, which promoted stand your ground gun laws and voter identification requirements ,

3720-438: Is defined as "those immobile, non-circulating capital goods that essentially contribute to the production of infrastructure goods and services needed to satisfy basic physical and social requirements of economic agents ". There are two distinct qualities of material infrastructures: 1) fulfillment of social needs and 2) mass production . The first characteristic deals with the basic needs of human life. The second characteristic

Critical infrastructure - Misplaced Pages Continue

3840-527: Is generally paid for by metered user fees. Major investment projects are generally financed by the issuance of long-term bonds . Government-owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the private sector or in public-private partnerships , in addition to in the public sector . As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2.3% and 3.6% of GDP since 1950. Many financial institutions invest in infrastructure. According to researchers at

3960-484: Is more beneficial in both an economic and environmental context, it represents the future of infrastructure. Especially with increasing pressure from climate change and diminishing natural resources, infrastructure not only needs to maintain economic development and job development, and a high quality of life for residents, but also protect the environment and its natural resources. Sustainable energy infrastructure includes types of renewable energy power plants as well as

4080-430: Is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average thirty to forty percent returns for telecommunications ( ICT ) investments, over forty percent for electricity generation, and eighty percent for roads . The demand for infrastructure both by consumers and by companies is much higher than the amount invested. There are severe constraints on

4200-546: Is needed, and transmission of information within and between communities." The American Society of Civil Engineers publishes an "Infrastructure Report Card" which represents the organizations opinion on the condition of various infrastructure every 2–4 years. As of 2017 they grade 16 categories, namely aviation, bridges, dams, drinking water , energy, hazardous waste , inland waterways , levees , parks and recreation , ports , rail , roads , schools, solid waste , transit and wastewater . The United States has received

4320-409: Is that they reduce stormwater runoff because of its ability to store water in its growing media, reducing the runoff entering the sewer system and waterways, which also decreases the risk of combined sewer overflows. They reduce energy usage since the growing media provides additional insulation, reduces the amount of solar radiation on the roof's surface, and provides evaporative cooling from water in

4440-599: Is the buildings and permanent installations necessary for the support of military forces, whether they are stationed in bases, being deployed or engaged in operations. Examples include barracks, headquarters, airfields, communications facilities, stores of military equipment, port installations, and maintenance stations. Communications infrastructure is the informal and formal channels of communication, political and social networks , or beliefs held by members of particular groups, as well as information technology, software development tools. Still underlying these more conceptual uses

4560-405: Is the idea that infrastructure provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, a nation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests. Examples include IT infrastructure , research infrastructure, terrorist infrastructure, employment infrastructure, and tourism infrastructure. The term "infrastructure" may be confused with

4680-812: Is the non-availability of infrastructure goods and services. Today, there are various materials that can be used to build infrastructure. The most prevalent ones are asphalt, concrete, steel, masonry, wood, polymers and composites. According to the business dictionary, economic infrastructure can be defined as "internal facilities of a country that make business activity possible, such as communication, transportation and distribution networks , financial institutions and related international markets, and energy supply systems". Economic infrastructure support productive activities and events. This includes roads, highways, bridges, airports, cycling infrastructure , water distribution networks, sewer systems , and irrigation plants. Social infrastructure can be broadly defined as

4800-746: Is the object of economic and legal policy. It compromises the growth and sets norms. It refers to the degree of fair treatment of equal economic data and determines the framework within which economic agents may formulate their own economic plans and carry them out in co-operation with others. Sustainable infrastructure refers to the processes of design and construction that take into consideration their environmental, economic, and social impact. Included in this section are several elements of sustainable schemes, including materials, water, energy, transportation, and waste management infrastructure. Although there are endless other factors of consideration, those will not be covered in this section. Material infrastructure

4920-794: Is to classify them as two distinct kinds: hard infrastructure and soft infrastructure . Hard infrastructure is the physical networks necessary for the functioning of a modern industrial society or industry . This includes roads, bridges, and railways. Soft infrastructure is all the institutions that maintain the economic , health , social , environmental , and cultural standards of a country. This includes educational programs , official statistics , parks and recreational facilities, law enforcement agencies, and emergency services . The word "infrastructure" has been used in French since 1875 and in English since 1887, originally meaning "installations that form

Critical infrastructure - Misplaced Pages Continue

5040-504: Is to think of it in terms of human capital . Human capital is defined by the Encyclopædia Britannica as "intangible collective resources possessed by individuals and groups within a given population". The goal of personal infrastructure is to determine the quality of the economic agents' values. This results in three major tasks: the task of economic proxies in the economic process (teachers, unskilled and qualified labor, etc.);

5160-612: Is very concerned about the potential economic impact of greenhouse gas regulation on electricity prices and the harm EPA regulations may have on the economic recovery". ALEC also has promoted a model bill that would call on the federal government to approve the proposed Keystone XL project, which would extend a synthetic crude oil pipeline from oil sands in Alberta, Canada to Nebraska. In 2013, ALEC planned legislation that would weaken state clean energy regulations and penalize homeowners who install their own solar panels and redistribute

5280-516: The American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), to criminalize protests against the fossil fuel industry . In May 2017, Oklahoma passed legislation which created felony penalties for trespassing on land considered critical infrastructure, including oil and gas pipelines , or conspiring to do so; ALEC introduced a version of the bill as a model act and encouraged other states to adopt it. In June 2020, West Virginia passed

5400-546: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , and the medical insurance group Blue Cross and Blue Shield dropped support of ALEC in the ensuing weeks or let their memberships lapse. Thirty-four legislative members also left ALEC. ALEC responded by releasing a statement describing efforts by its critics as a "campaign launched by a coalition of extreme liberal activists committed to silencing anyone who disagrees with their agenda". Doug Clopp of Common Cause credited ALEC Exposed for

5520-608: The European Commission 's directive EU COM(2006) 786 which designates European critical infrastructure that, in case of fault, incident, or attack, could impact both the country where it is hosted and at least one other European Member State . Member states are obliged to adopt the 2006 directive into their national statutes. It has proposed a list of European critical infrastructures based upon inputs by its member states. Each designated European Critical Infrastructures (ECI) will have to have an Operator Security Plan (OSP) covering

5640-513: The League of Conservation Voters pointed to such behavior to accuse ALEC of denying climate change . ALEC responded by threatening legal action, denying that ALEC supports climate change denial, and saying it has more recently welcomed debate on the subject and supported renewable energy and carbon tax policies to curb global warming. Several corporations have announced that their affiliations with ALEC will be allowed to lapse over disagreement with

5760-651: The NIST Cybersecurity Framework was published, and quickly became a popular set of guidelines, despite the significant costs of full compliance. These have identified a number of critical infrastructures and responsible agencies: The National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) defines critical infrastructure sector in the US. Presidential Policy Directive 21 (PPD-21), issued in February 2013 entitled Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience mandated an update to

5880-743: The Overseas Development Institute , the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) . Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa. It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005, and increased investment

6000-409: The private sector can contribute to these essential services. Most commonly associated with the term are assets and facilities for: The Canadian Federal Government identifies the following 10 Critical Infrastructure Sectors as a way to classify essential assets. European Programme for Critical Infrastructure Protection (EPCIP) refers to the doctrine or specific programs created as a result of

6120-601: The "conservative nation" ALEC has been working toward. ALEC was founded in 1973 in Chicago as the Conservative Caucus of State Legislators, a project initiated by Mark Rhoads, an Illinois state house staffer, to counter the Environmental Protection Agency , wage , and price controls , and to respond to the defeat of Barry Goldwater in the 1964 presidential election . Conservative legislators felt

SECTION 50

#1733085043176

6240-435: The 2017 ASCE Infrastructure Report Card, from 2016 to 2025, infrastructure will be underinvested by $ 2 trillion. Compared to the global GDP percentages, The United States is tied for second-to-last place, with an average percentage of 2.4%. This means that the government spends less money on repairing old infrastructure and or on infrastructure as a whole. In Sub-Saharan Africa , governments spend around US$ 9.4 billion out of

6360-547: The 62 ID laws states considered during the 2011 and 2012 legislative sessions, more than half were proposed by lawmakers who... were all participants in the American Legislative Exchange Council, or ALEC. In exchange for their payments of $ 50 per year in membership dues, those legislators had access to a draft proposal for strict voter ID requirements". The " Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act ", an Arizona law commonly known as "SB 1070",

6480-535: The ALEC legislative members belong to the Republican Party . Membership statistics presented at an ALEC board meeting in 2013 indicated that the 1,810 members represented 24% of all state legislative seats across the U.S., and that ALEC members represented 100% of the legislative seats in Iowa and South Dakota. It also has approximately 300 corporate, foundation, and other private-sector members. The chairmanship of ALEC

6600-648: The Critical Infrastructure Protection Act, which created felony penalties for protests against oil and gas facilities. Critical infrastructure (CI) such as highways, railways, electric power networks, dams, port facilities, major gas pipelines or oil refineries are exposed to multiple natural and human-induced hazards and stressors, including earthquakes , landslides , floods , tsunami , wildfires , climate change effects or explosions . These stressors and abrupt events can cause failures and losses, and hence, can interrupt essential services for

6720-739: The Federal Office of Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance BBK deliver the respective content, e.g., about IT systems . In Singapore, critical infrastructures are mandated under the Protected Areas and Protected Places Act. In 2017, the Infrastructure Protection Act was passed in Parliament, which provides for the protection of certain areas, places and other premises in Singapore against security risks. It came into force in 2018. In

6840-649: The French word structure . The army use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s, and by 1970 was adopted by urban planners in its modern civilian sense. A 1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the term " public works infrastructure", referring to: "... both specific functional modes – highways, streets, roads, and bridges; mass transit ; airports and airways; water supply and water resources ; wastewater management ; solid-waste treatment and disposal; electric power generation and transmission; telecommunications; and hazardous waste management – and

6960-555: The G20 COVID-19 related fiscal measures was found to be climate friendly. Although it is readily apparent that much effort is needed to repair the economic damage inflicted by the Coronavirus epidemic, an immediate return to business as usual could be environmentally harmful, as shown by the 2007-08 financial crisis in the United States. While the ensuing economic slowdown reduced global greenhouse gas emissions in 2009, emissions reached

7080-507: The NIPP. This revision of the plan established the following 16 critical infrastructure sectors: National Monuments and Icons along with the postal and shipping sector were removed in 2013 update to the NIPP. The 2013 version of the NIPP has faced criticism for lacking viable risk measures. The plan assigns the following agencies sector-specific coordination responsibilities: Several U.S. states have passed "critical infrastructure" bills, promoted by

7200-478: The U.S. in various forms since it was drafted in 2003. The federal " Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act " has notable similarities, and at points almost verbatim language, to ALEC's model "Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act". The Senate version of the " Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act " was sponsored by Senator James Inhofe , a long-time member of ALEC. Many ag-gag bills are also similar to ALEC's model "Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act", which would make it against

7320-661: The UK, the National Protective Security Authority (NPSA) provides information, personnel and physical security advice to the businesses and organizations which make up the UK's national infrastructure, helping to reduce its vulnerability to terrorism and other threats. It can call on resources from other government departments and agencies, including MI5 , the National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) and other government departments responsible for national infrastructure sectors. The U.S. has had

SECTION 60

#1733085043176

7440-736: The United States. ALEC provides a forum for state legislators and private sector members to collaborate on model bills —draft legislation that members may customize and introduce for debate in their own state legislatures. ALEC has produced model bills on a broad range of issues, such as reducing regulation and individual and corporate taxation, combating illegal immigration , loosening environmental regulations , tightening voter identification rules , weakening labor unions , and opposing gun control . Some of these bills dominate legislative agendas in states such as Arizona, Wisconsin, Colorado, Michigan, New Hampshire, and Maine. Approximately 200 model bills become law each year. ALEC also serves as

7560-500: The United States." ALEC also has a Board of Scholars that advises staff and members. The board is composed of Arthur Laffer , an economist who served on Ronald Reagan 's Economic Policy Advisory Board ; Victor Schwartz, chair of Public Policy at Shook, Hardy & Bacon ; Richard Vedder , economics professor emeritus at Ohio University and adjunct scholar at the American Enterprise Institute ; and Rob Natelson ,

7680-498: The advocacy group Color of Change to launch a public campaign to pressure corporations to withdraw their ALEC memberships. The criticism among media outlets and political opponents was that ALEC was secretly subverting democratic institutions to further the aims of its corporate benefactors. Oregon state representative and ALEC member Gene Whisnant said in December 2011, "We're getting a lot of attention saying we're trying to destroy

7800-410: The amount of greenhouse gases. There are a variety of types of bioretention and infiltration practices, including rain gardens and bioswales. A rain garden is planted in a small depression or natural slope and includes native shrubs and flowers. They temporarily hold and absorb rain water and are effective in removing up to 90% of nutrients and chemicals and up to 80% of sediments from the runoff. As

7920-428: The appropriate built environments for these ecologically preferable modes of transportation. Cities will need to invest in public transportation networks, as well as bike path networks among other sustainable solutions that incentivize citizens to use these alternate transit options. Reducing the urban dependency on cars is a fundamental goal of developing sustainable transportation, and this cannot be accomplished without

8040-467: The basis for any operation or system". It is a loanword from French, where it was already used for establishing a roadbed of substrate material, required before railroad tracks or constructed pavement could be laid on top of it. The word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra- , meaning "below", as many of these constructions are underground (for example, tunnels, water and gas systems, and railways), and

8160-606: The board of directors meets. Council members include representatives from prominent corporations such as ExxonMobil , Pfizer , AT&T , SAP , State Farm Insurance and Koch Industries . ALEC statements assert that the council provides advice to the board of directors. Former ALEC co-chairman Noble Ellington said in 2011, "I really kind of think of us as one board," although he added, "It's certainly not our goal to sit there and do everything that business wants to have done." Day-to-day operations are run from ALEC's Arlington County, Virginia , office by an executive director and

8280-401: The board. However, they must also scale up public investment to ensure successful reopening, boost growth and employment, and green their economies. The unusually large scale of the packages needed for COVID-19 was accompanied by widespread calls for "greening" them to meet the dual goals of economic recovery and environmental sustainability . However, as of March 2021, only a small fraction of

8400-461: The combined system these modal elements comprise. A comprehension of infrastructure spans not only these public works facilities, but also the operating procedures, management practices, and development policies that interact together with societal demand and the physical world to facilitate the transport of people and goods, provision of water for drinking and a variety of other uses, safe disposal of society's waste products, provision of energy where it

8520-501: The component and the system scope is performed, including fragility and risk analysis of the CIs for the stressors defined in Phase 1. The stress test can result in three outcomes: Pass, Partly Pass and Fail, based on the comparison of the quantified risks to acceptable risk exposure levels and a penalty system. Phase 3: Decision , during which the results of the stress test are analyzed according to

8640-613: The construction and maintenance of facilities that support social services . Social infrastructures are created to increase social comfort and promote economic activity. These include schools, parks and playgrounds , structures for public safety , waste disposal plants, hospitals, and sports areas. Core assets provide essential services and have monopolistic characteristics. Investors seeking core infrastructure look for five different characteristics: income, low volatility of returns, diversification, inflation protection, and long-term liability matching. Core infrastructure incorporates all

8760-520: The costs associated with the criminal justice system. At that time, ALEC promoted investing taxpayer money in alternatives to incarceration, such as electronic monitoring. ALEC pushed for deregulation of the electricity industry in the 1990s. Maneuvering between two private sector members, the former energy trader, Enron , and the utilities trade association, Edison Electric Institute (EEI), resulted in EEI withdrawing its ALEC membership. Enron's position on

8880-687: The country." In 2012, ALEC was the subject of an Occupy movement protest, an Internal Revenue Service complaint by Common Cause , and calls for attorney general investigations in several states. The killing of Trayvon Martin on February 26, 2012, led to increased public attention on "Stand-your-ground" gun laws that ALEC had supported. Color of Change launched a new campaign in April to pressure ALEC corporate members to withdraw. More than sixty corporations and foundations, including Coca-Cola , Wendy's , Kraft Foods , McDonald's , Amazon.com , General Electric , Apple , Procter & Gamble , Walmart ,

9000-409: The earth and everything on it." ALEC staff and members promoted the organization as promoting public-private partnerships for the advancement of free market principles. ALEC senior director of membership and development Chaz Cirame said, "The hook about some conspiracy or some secret organization is a lot better story than one about bringing state legislators together to talk about best practices around

9120-530: The economy. This has serious impacts on households, businesses, and federal, state and local governments. This is especially detrimental to infrastructure because it is so dependent on funding from government agencies – with state and local governments accounting for approximately 75% of spending on public infrastructure in the United States. Governments are facing enormous decreases in revenue, economic downturns, overworked health systems, and hesitant workforces, resulting in huge budget deficits across

9240-612: The electricity back into the grid , whom ALEC has described as "freeriders" because they do not pay for the infrastructure costs of recirculating their generated power. Also in 2013, ALEC adopted a model bill saying that the role of human activity in causing climate change was uncertain, that man-made climate change could be "deleterious, neutral or possibly beneficial," and that the cost of regulating greenhouse gas emissions could cause "great economic dislocation." ALEC also has invited climate change deniers , such as Craig Idso , to speak at its national meetings. In 2015 Common Cause and

9360-446: The established steady-state equilibrium of it. The materials should also be resilient, renewable, reusable, and recyclable. Today, concrete is one of the most common materials used in infrastructure. There is twice as much concrete used in construction than all other building materials combined. It is the backbone of industrialization, as it is used in bridges, piers, pipelines, pavements, and buildings. However, while they do serve as

9480-551: The executive director from December 1996 to January 2006. Lori Roman, who served in the same role from 2006 to 2008, had an imperious style that led to financial difficulties and the departure of two thirds of ALEC's staff. According to Dolores Mertz , then a Democratic Iowa state representative and chairwoman of the ALEC board, ALEC became increasingly partisan during that period, with Roman once telling Mertz "she didn't like Democrats and she wasn't going to work with them." Ron Scheberle became executive director in 2010 after acting as

9600-458: The following overlapping or related concepts. Land improvement and land development are general terms that in some contexts may include infrastructure, but in the context of a discussion of infrastructure would refer only to smaller-scale systems or works that are not included in infrastructure, because they are typically limited to a single parcel of land , and are owned and operated by the landowner. For example, an irrigation canal that serves

9720-428: The form of a large network; in other words, hard infrastructure . Efforts to devise more generic definitions of infrastructures have typically referred to the network aspects of most of the structures, and to the accumulated value of investments in the networks as assets. One such definition from 1998 defined infrastructure as the network of assets "where the system as a whole is intended to be maintained indefinitely at

9840-499: The framework of the European research project STREST, consisting of four phases: Phase 1: Preassessment , during which the data available on the CI (risk context) and on the phenomena of interest (hazard context) are collected. The goal and objectives, the time frame, the stress test level and the total costs of the stress test are defined. Phase 2: Assessment , during which the stress test at

9960-628: The goal and objectives defined in Phase 1. Critical events (events that most likely cause the exceedance of a given level of loss) and risk mitigation strategies are identified. Phase 4: Report , during which the stress test outcome and risk mitigation guidelines based on the findings established in Phase 3 are formulated and presented to the stakeholders. This stress-testing methodology has been demonstrated to six CIs in Europe at component and system level: an oil refinery and petrochemical plant in Milazzo, Italy;

10080-473: The government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by privately held companies, such as sole public utility or railway companies. Generally, most roads, major airports and other ports, water distribution systems, and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for from taxes, tolls, or metered user fees, whereas private infrastructure

10200-968: The group has focused more on business and regulatory matters. According to John Nichols of The Nation , ALEC's agenda "seems to be dictated at almost every turn by multinational corporations. It's to clear the way for lower taxes, less regulation, a lot of protection against lawsuits, [and] ALEC is very, very active in [the] opening up of areas via privatization for corporations to make more money, particularly in places you might not usually expect like public education." A Brookings Institution study of state legislation introduced in 2011–2012 found that ALEC model bills that became law were linked most often to controversial social and economic issues. The study concluded that this phenomenon has hurt ALEC because, "Dirtying its hands with social issues undermines ALEC's ability to exercise influence over fiscal ones." According to research by Columbia University political scientist Alex Hertel-Fernandez, ALEC model legislation during

10320-464: The group's opposition to action on climate change. These include Ford , BP , Microsoft , Google and Shell . A statement by Shell said "its stance on climate change is clearly inconsistent with our own...We have long recognized both the importance of the climate challenge and the critical role energy has in determining quality of life for people across the world." An ALEC spokesperson responded "Climate change activists have conflated our opposition to

10440-472: The holistic and effective management of water resources. Increasingly, policy makers and regulators are incorporating Nature-based solutions (NBS or NbS) into attempts to achieve sustainable water infrastructure. Sustainable waste management systems aim to minimize the amount of waste products produced by individuals and corporations. Commercial waste management plans have transitioned from simple waste removal plans into comprehensive plans focused on reducing

10560-598: The identification of important assets, a risk analysis based on major threat scenarios and the vulnerability of each asset, and the identification, selection and prioritisation of counter-measures and procedures. The German critical-infrastructure protection programme KRITIS is coordinated by the Federal Ministry of the Interior . Some of its special agencies like the German Federal Office for Information Security or

10680-480: The impact of raindrops on barren surfaces, minimize soil moisture through transpiration, and they help reduce stormwater runoff. Additionally, trees contribute to recharging local aquifers and improve the health of watershed systems. Trees also reduce energy usage by providing shade and releasing water into the atmosphere which cools the air and reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings. Finally, trees improve air quality by absorbing harmful air pollutants reducing

10800-451: The importance of personal infrastructure for an individual (short and long-term consumption of education); and the social relevance of personal infrastructure. Essentially, personal infrastructure maps the human impact on infrastructure as it is related to the economy, individual growth, and social impact. Institutional infrastructure branches from the term "economic constitution". According to Gianpiero Torrisi , institutional infrastructure

10920-593: The largest for-profit prison companies in the U.S. (as of 2004 ), have been contributors to ALEC. ALEC also has worked to pass state laws to allow the creation of private-sector for-profit prisons. Marie Gottschalk , professor of political science at the University of Pennsylvania, said that ALEC has played a major role in "liberating the private sector to employ penal labor and expand the privatization of corrections." Economist Paul Krugman wrote in 2012 that ALEC had "a special interest in privatization—that is, on turning

11040-471: The late 1970s focused primarily on social issues, such as abortion, drugs, gun laws, religious freedom and anti-busing. By the 1980s, the focus was primarily on criminal justice. By the 1990s, the focus was overwhelmingly on business deregulation. Stand-your-ground laws expanded to 30 states through the support of ALEC, after Florida passed its law in 2005. After the Florida law had been passed, ALEC adopted

11160-712: The law to film, videotape, or take photographs on livestock farms in order to "defame the facility or its owner". People found to be in violation would be put in a "terrorist registry". According to Governing magazine, "ALEC has been a major force behind both privatizing state prison space and keeping prisons filled." ALEC has developed model bills advancing " tough on crime " initiatives, including " truth in sentencing " and " three strikes " laws. Critics argue that by funding and participating in ALEC's Criminal Justice Task Force, private prison companies directly influence legislation for tougher, longer sentences. Corrections Corporation of America and Wackenhut Corrections , two of

11280-416: The little parts of the engineering world that make life more convenient and efficient. They are needed to ensure successful usage and marketing of an already finished product, like in the case of road bridges . Other examples are lights on sidewalks, landscaping around buildings, and benches where pedestrians can rest. Engineers generally limit the term "infrastructure" to describe fixed assets that are in

11400-635: The main types of infrastructure, such as roads, highways, railways, public transportation , water, and gas supply. Basic infrastructure refers to main railways, roads, canals, harbors and docks, the electromagnetic telegraph, drainage, dikes, and land reclamation. It consist of the more well-known and common features of infrastructure that we come across in our daily lives (buildings, roads, docks). Complementary infrastructure refers to things like light railways, tramways, and gas/electricity/water supply. To complement something means to bring it to perfection or complete it. Complementary infrastructure deals with

11520-487: The majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased in the 2000s (decade) and in Africa alone external infrastructure investments increased from US$ 7 billion in 2002 to US$ 27 billion in 2009. China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated the underfunding of infrastructure globally that has been accumulating for decades. The pandemic has increased unemployment and has widely disrupted

11640-556: The market by prevailing non renewable energy sources. Sustainable water infrastructure is focused on a community's sufficient access to clean, safe drinking water. Water is a public good along with electricity, which means that sustainable water catchment and distribution systems must remain affordable to all members of a population. "Sustainable Water" may refer to a nation or community's ability to be self-sustainable, with enough water to meet multiple needs including agriculture, industry, sanitation, and drinking water. It can also refer to

11760-581: The massive societal transformations needed to mitigate and adapt to climate change, contemporary infrastructure conversations frequently focus on sustainable development and green infrastructure . Acknowledging this importance, the international community has created policy focused on sustainable infrastructure through the Sustainable Development Goals , especially Sustainable Development Goal 9 " Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ". One way to describe different types of infrastructure

11880-466: The matter was adopted by ALEC and subsequently, by many state legislatures. In 2011, ALEC adopted model legislation having to do with public " right to know " laws regarding what fluids are used in hydraulic fracturing (also known as "fracking") that was promoted as a victory for the right of consumers to know about potential drinking water contaminants , in spite of the fact that the bill contained "loopholes that would allow energy companies to withhold

12000-601: The means of exchange from the plant to the homes and businesses that use that energy. Renewable energy includes well researched and widely implemented methods such as wind, solar, and hydraulic power, as well as newer and less commonly used types of power creation such as fusion energy. Sustainable energy infrastructure must maintain a strong supply relative to demand, and must also maintain sufficiently low prices for consumers so as not to decrease demand. Any type of renewable energy infrastructure that fails to meet these consumption and price requirements will ultimately be forced out of

12120-435: The names of certain fluid contents, for reasons including that they have been deemed trade secrets". ALEC has promoted a model bill that called plans in 2011 by the federal Environmental Protection Agency to regulate greenhouse gas emissions , a "train wreck" that would harm the economy, and it has supported efforts by various states to withdraw from regional climate change compacts. In 2013, their resolution stated "Alec

12240-627: The natural processes needed to manage water, reduce the effects of disasters such as flooding, and create healthier urban environments. In a more practical sense, it refers to a decentralized network of stormwater management practices, which includes green roofs, trees, bioretention and infiltration, and permeable pavement. Green infrastructure has become an increasingly popular strategy in recent years due to its effectiveness in providing ecological, economic, and social benefits – including positively impacting energy consumption, air quality, and carbon reduction and sequestration. A green roof

12360-504: The organization during its early years, including Rep. Jack Kemp of New York, Sen. Jesse Helms of North Carolina, Sen. James L. Buckley of New York, Rep. Phil Crane of Illinois, and Rep Eric Cantor of Virginia. In the 1980s, ALEC opposed U.S. disinvestment from South Africa , a movement to put pressure on the South African government to embark on negotiations with a goal of dismantling apartheid . In 1985, ALEC also published

12480-492: The plants, which reduce the roof surface temperatures and heat influx. Green roofs also reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide since the vegetation sequesters carbon and, since they reduce energy usage and the urban heat island by reducing the roof temperature, they also lower carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation. Tree planting provides a host of ecological, social, and economic benefits. Trees can intercept rain, support infiltration and water storage in soil, diminish

12600-615: The process of decarbonization . Research suggests that a recovery plan based on lower-carbon emissions could not only make significant emissions reductions needed to battle climate change, but also create more economic growth and jobs than a high-carbon recovery plan would. A study published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy, more than 200 economists and economic officials reported that "green" economic-recovery initiatives performed at least as well as less "green" initiatives. There have also been calls for an independent body could provide

12720-484: The provision of public services, from schools to prisons, over to for-profit corporations," and as such played a significant role in the " penal–industrial complex ". As an example, Krugman wrote that the American Bail Coalition had declared publicly that ALEC was its "life preserver." By 2013, ALEC disbanded the task force that favored harsh sentencing and supported reducing prison overcrowding and lowering

12840-451: The same level of output at similarly reasonable costs as compared to other non sustainable communities, while still maintaining ease of operation and usage. American Legislative Exchange Council The American Legislative Exchange Council ( ALEC ) is a nonprofit organization of conservative state legislators and private sector representatives who draft and share model legislation for distribution among state governments in

12960-437: The society and the economy. Therefore, CI owners and operators need to identify and quantify the risks posed by the CIs due to different stressors, in order to define mitigation strategies and improve the resilience of the CIs. Stress tests are advanced and standardised tools for hazard and risk assessment of CIs, that include both low-probability high-consequence (LP-HC) events and so-called extreme or rare events , as well as

13080-403: The spread of policies intended to curb sanctuary cities (jurisdictions where immigration enforcement is not a law enforcement priority). One of ALEC's model bills is the "Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act", which classifies certain property destruction, acts of intimidation, and civil disobedience by environmental and animal rights activists as terrorism . This model bill appeared across

13200-552: The successful campaign, saying that "for 40 years you couldn't get the kind of accountability we're seeing now because ALEC, its members, its legislators, its bills were secret." Former Visa Inc. lobbyist, Newt Gingrich aide, and GOPAC executive director, Lisa B. Nelson, succeeded Scheberle as CEO of ALEC in 2014. In late 2014, a number of technology-oriented companies such as Google , Microsoft , Facebook , eBay , and Yahoo! announced that they were ending their ties to ALEC. Multiple companies cited environmental concerns as

13320-472: The supply side of the provision of infrastructure in Asia. The infrastructure financing gap between what is invested in Asia-Pacific (around US$ 48 billion) and what is needed (US$ 228 billion) is around US$ 180 billion every year. In Latin America, three percent of GDP (around US$ 71 billion) would need to be invested in infrastructure in order to satisfy demand, yet in 2005, for example, only around two percent

13440-460: The systematic application of these new tools to classes of CI. Stress testing is the process of assessing the ability of a CI to maintain a certain level of functionality under unfavourable conditions, while stress tests consider LP-HC events, which are not always accounted for in the design and risk assessment procedures, commonly adopted by public authorities or industrial stakeholders. A multilevel stress test methodology for CI has been developed in

13560-471: The total amount of waste produced before removal. Sustainable waste management is beneficial environmentally, and can also cut costs for businesses that reduce their amount of disposed goods. Sustainable transportation includes a shift away from private, greenhouse gas emitting cars in favor of adopting methods of transportation that are either carbon neutral or reduce carbon emissions such as bikes or electric bus systems. Additionally, cities must invest in

13680-442: The usable water supply by reducing the amount of water needed for outdoor irrigation; improve air quality by minimizing the amount of water going into treatment facilities, which also reduces energy usage and, as a result, reduces air pollution since less greenhouse gases are emitted. Smart cities use innovative methods of design and implementation in various sectors of infrastructure and planning to create communities that operate at

13800-475: The word "conservative" was unpopular with the public at the time, however, so the organization was renamed as, the American Legislative Exchange Council. In 1975, with the support of the American Conservative Union , ALEC registered as a federal nonprofit agency. Bill Moyers and Greenpeace have attributed the establishment of ALEC to the influential Powell Memorandum , which led to the rise of

13920-460: The world's industrial water usage is from producing concrete. Even transporting the raw materials to concrete production sites adds to airborne pollution. Furthermore, the production sites and the infrastructures themselves all strip away agricultural land that could have been fertile soil or habitats vital to the ecosystem. Green infrastructure is a type of sustainable infrastructure. Green infrastructure uses plant or soil systems to restore some of

14040-476: Was disbanded in April 2012. Thereafter, the National Center for Public Policy Research announced the creation of a voter ID task force to replace the one discontinued by ALEC. Bills drafted by the task forces must be approved by the ALEC board of directors, composed exclusively of legislators, before they are designated as model bills. ALEC also has a Private Enterprise Advisory Council, which meets whenever

14160-559: Was drafted during an ALEC meeting in December 2009 and became an ALEC model bill. Enacted in 2010, SB 1070 was described as the toughest illegal immigration law in the U.S. Portions of SB 1070 were held by the Supreme Court to be preempted by federal law in 2012. Bills similar to SB 1070 were passed in Alabama, Georgia, Indiana, and Utah, and have been introduced in 17 other states. A 2018 study characterized ALEC as highly influential in

14280-410: Was introduced in many states to mandate or strengthen requirements that voters produce state-issued photographic identification. The bills were passed and signed into law in six states. Voter identification bills introduced in 34 states would have made voting more difficult for students, the elderly, and the poor. According to research by Columbia University political scientist Alex Hertel-Fernandez, "Of

14400-768: Was invested leaving a financing gap of approximately US$ 24 billion. In Africa, in order to reach the seven percent annual growth calculated to be required to meet the MDGs by 2015 would require infrastructure investments of about fifteen percent of GDP, or around US$ 93 billion a year. In fragile states , over thirty-seven percent of GDP would be required. The source of financing for infrastructure varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by government spending , others by overseas development aid (ODA) , and yet others by private investors. In California, infrastructure financing districts are established by local governments to pay for physical facilities and services within

#175824