120-573: The crab-eating macaque ( Macaca fascicularis ), also known as the long-tailed macaque or cynomolgus macaque , is a cercopithecine primate native to Southeast Asia. As a synanthropic species, the crab-eating macaque thrives near human settlements and in secondary forest. Crab-eating macaques have developed attributes and roles assigned to them by humans, ranging from cultural perceptions as being smart and adaptive, to being sacred animals, being regarded as vermin and pests, and becoming resources in modern biomedical research. They have been described as
240-470: A common ancestor roughly 25 million years ago. The rhesus macaque has 21 pairs of chromosomes. Comparison of rhesus macaques, chimpanzees , and humans revealed the structure of ancestral primate genomes, positive selection pressure and lineage-specific expansions, and contractions of gene families. "The goal is to reconstruct the history of every gene in the human genome," said Evan Eichler , University of Washington, Seattle. DNA from different branches of
360-592: A gestation period of 162–193 days, the female gives birth to one infant. The infant's weight at birth is about 320 g (11 oz). Infants are born with black fur which will begin to turn to a grey or reddish-brown shade (depending on the subspecies) after about three months of age. This natal coat may indicate to others the status of the infant, and other group members treat infants with care and rush to their defense when distressed. Immigrant males sometimes kill infants not their own in order to shorten interbirth intervals . High-ranking females will sometimes kidnap
480-503: A subfamily of the Old World monkeys , which comprises roughly 71 species, including the baboons , the macaques , and the vervet monkeys . Most cercopithecine monkeys are limited to sub-Saharan Africa , although the macaques range from the far eastern parts of Asia through northern Africa , as well as on Gibraltar . The various species are adapted to the different terrains they inhabit. Arboreal species are slim, delicate, and have
600-401: A 40% decline in the entire crab eating macaque population between 1980 and 2006. This comes from a population estimate of 5 million in the 1980s-90s. population estimate of 3 million in 2006. It is unclear how the 3 million estimate was reached. Using a noninvasive probability model to estimate the maximum population abundance, it was estimated that the current population of crab eating macaques
720-567: A broad range of admixture proportions. Introgression from rhesus to crab eating macaque populations extends beyond Indochina and the Kra Isthmus , whereas introgression from crab eating to rhesus macaques is more restricted. There seems to be a rhesus biased and male biased gene flow between rhesus and crab eating macaque population which has led to different degrees of genetic admixture in these two species. The crab-eating macaque's native range encompasses most of mainland Southeast Asia , through
840-566: A decade. In the 1980s a trapper captured several monkeys from the Titusville population and released them in the Silver Springs area to join that population. The last printed records of monkeys in the Titusville area occurred in early 1990s, but sightings continue to this day. Various colonies of rhesus macaque are speculated to be the result of zoos and wildlife parks destroyed in hurricanes, most notably Hurricane Andrew . A 2020 estimate put
960-407: A feasible management tool for reducing human–macaque conflict because it avoids the extermination of the animals and avoids costs and problems associated with translocation. Although there is potential for sterilization and general fertility control to be positive, there is limited research and understanding of the long-term effects of sterilization programs and its effectiveness. The rhesus macaque
1080-827: A group is not often stable, and males probably change troops several times during their life; rank below the dominant male is not consistent or stable either – males show sophisticated decision-making when it comes to transferring dominance. Direct encounters between adjacent non-provisioned troops are relatively rare which suggests mutual avoidance. Interactions have been reported between crab-eating and southern pig-tailed macaques, Colobinae species, proboscis monkey , gibbons and orangutans . Dusky leaf monkeys , crab eating macaques and white-thighed surilis form tolerant foraging associations, with juveniles playing together. Crab eating macaques have also been observed grooming Raffles' banded langurs in Malaysia. Group living in all species
1200-613: A juvenile maxilla from Wanglaopu Cave near Zhoukoudian represent the first recognized occurrence of rhesus macaque fossils in the far north of China, and thus the population of rhesus macaques which lived around Beijing decades ago is believed to have originated from Pleistocene ancestors rather than being human-introduced. Fossil mandible fragments from the Taedong River Basin around Pyongyang , North Korea, have also been assigned to this species. Rhesus macaques have also been introduced and acclimated to other areas, such as
1320-470: A long tail, while terrestrial species are stockier and their tails can be small or completely nonexistent. All species have well-developed thumbs. Some species have ischial callosities on their rump, which can change their colour during their mating periods. These monkeys are diurnal and live together in social groups. They live in all types of terrain and climate, from rain forests, savannah , and bald rocky areas, to cool or even snowy mountains, such as
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#17330855878361440-406: A mother's kin are closer to her on average. When given a nonfood object and two owners, one being a kin and one not, the rival will choose the older individual to attack regardless of kinship . Though the hypothesis remains that mother-juvenile relationships may facilitate social learning of ownership, the combined results clearly point to aggression towards the least-threatening individual. A study
1560-536: A natural process in some areas, and a direct consequence of introduction by humans in other regions – poses grave implications for the endemic and declining populations of bonnet macaques in southern India. Kumar et al (2013) provides a summary of population distribution and habitat in India. It states that there were sightings of rhesus macaques in all surveyed habitats except semi-evergreen forests. Fossilized isolated teeth and mandible fragments from Tianyuan Cave and
1680-451: A partner are more successful than those that leave alone. Young females, though, stay with the group and become incorporated into the matriline into which they were born. Male crab-eating macaques groom females to increase the chance of mating. A female is more likely to engage in sexual activity with a male that has recently groomed her than with one that has not. Studies have found that the dominant male copulates more than other males in
1800-522: A race of humans with long hair and handsome beards who used dogs for hunting according to Aristophanes of Byzantium , who seemingly derived the etymology of the word cynomolgus from the Greek κύων, cyon 'dog' (gen. cyno-s ) and the verb ἀμέλγειν , amelgein 'to milk' (adj. amolg-os ), by claiming that they milked female dogs. Crab-eating macaques are understood and perceived in many ways: smart, pestiferous, exploited, sacred, vermin, invasive. In 2000
1920-522: A robbing and bartering behavior in some tourist locations. The crab-eating macaque is the most traded primate species, the most culled primate species, the most persecuted primate species and also the most popular species used in scientific research. Due to these threats, the crab-eating macaque was listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2022. Macaca comes from the Portuguese word macaco , which
2040-443: A significant increase in the frequency of human-macaque conflict. Crop raiding is one of the biggest visible effects of human-rhesus conflict. The estimated financial cost to individual farmer households of macaque corn and rice raiding is approximately US$ 14.9 or 4.2% of their yearly income. This has resulted in farmers and other members of the population viewing macaques inhabiting agricultural landscapes as serious crop pests. Nepal
2160-463: A single loud, high-pitched sound called a shrill bark. Screeches, screams, squeaks, pant-threats, growls, and barks are used during aggressive interactions. Infants " gecker " to attract their mother's attention. Adult male macaques try to maximize their reproductive success by entering into sex with females both in and outside the breeding period . Females prefer to mate with males that are not familiar to them. Outsider males who are not members of
2280-643: A source of contentious debate in political scenarios, resentment and polarization amongst agriculturalists and wildlife conservationists. In India, crop raiding by rhesus macaques has been identified as the main cause of conflict. In urban areas, rhesus macaques damage property and injure people in house raids to access food and provisions; in agricultural areas, they cause financial losses to farmers due to crop depredation. The estimated extent of crop damages in Himachal Pradesh ranges from 10–100% to 40–80% of all crop losses. The financial implications of such damage
2400-493: A species on the edge, living on the edge of forests, rivers, and seas, at the edge of human settlements, and perhaps on the edge of rapid extinction. Crab-eating macaques are omnivorous and frugivorous . They live in matrilineal groups ranging from 10 to 85 individuals, with groups exhibiting female philopatry and males emigrating from natal group at puberty . Crab eating macaques are the only old-world monkey known to use stone tools in their daily foraging, and they engage in
2520-466: A staggered time between when the dominant individual begins to drink and the subordinate. Long-term studies reveal the gap in drinking time closes as the conflict moves further into the past. Grooming and support in conflict among primates is considered to be an act of reciprocal altruism . In crab-eating macaques, an experiment was performed in which individuals were given the opportunity to groom one another under three conditions: after being groomed by
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#17330855878362640-482: A third individual. Consolation was not seen in any study performed. When crab-eating macaques are approached by others while foraging, they tend to move away. Postconflict anxiety has been reported in crab-eating macaques that have acted as the aggressor. After a conflict within a group, the aggressor appears to scratch itself at a higher rate than before the conflict. Though the scratching behavior cannot definitely be termed as an anxious behavior, evidence suggests this
2760-571: A train station in Kanpur, India, documented a rhesus monkey, knocked unconscious by overhead power lines, that was revived by another rhesus that systematically administered a series of resuscitative actions. Like other macaques, rhesus troops comprise a mixture of 20–200 males and females. Females may outnumber the males by a ratio of 4:1. Males and females both have separate hierarchies. Female philopatry , common among social mammals, has been extensively studied in rhesus macaques. Females tend not to leave
2880-442: A variety of facial expressions, vocalizations, body postures, and gestures. Perhaps the most common facial expression the macaque makes is the "silent bared teeth" face. This is made between individuals of different social ranks, with the lower-ranking one giving the expression to its superior. A less-dominant individual also makes a "fear grimace", accompanied by a scream, to appease or redirect aggression. Another submissive behavior
3000-805: Is diurnal , arboreal, and terrestrial. It is mostly herbivorous , feeding mainly on fruit , but also eating seeds , roots , buds , bark , and cereals . Rhesus macaques living in cities also eat human food and trash. They are gregarious , with troops comprising 20–200 individuals. The social groups are matrilineal . Individuals communicate with a variety of facial expressions, vocalisations, body postures, and gestures. Due to rhesus macaque's relatively easy upkeep, wide availability, and closeness to humans anatomically and physiologically, it has been used extensively in medical and biological research. It has facilitated many scientific breakthroughs including vaccines for rabies , smallpox , polio and antiretroviral medication to treat HIV/AIDS . A rhesus macaque became
3120-414: Is 1 million, which reflects a continuous decline in the population – 80% reduction over 35 years. This study used a model that overestimated population so the true decline is probably even greater. A population Viability Analysis (PVA) for crab-eating macaques revealed that the presence and absence of females in a population are key to its short and long term viability. Anything that negatively targets females
3240-1091: Is 89.6–94.3%. The rhesus macaque has a dental formula of 2.1.2.3 2.1.2.3 × 2 = 32 and bilophodont molar teeth . Rhesus macaques are native to India , Bangladesh , Pakistan , Nepal , Myanmar , Thailand , Afghanistan , Vietnam , southern China , and some neighbouring areas. They have the widest geographic ranges of any non-human primate, occupying a great diversity of altitudes throughout Central, South, and Southeast Asia. Inhabiting arid, open areas, rhesus macaques may be found in grasslands, woodlands, and in mountainous regions up to 2,500 m (8,200 ft) in elevation. They are strong swimmers, and can swim across rivers. Rhesus macaques are noted for their tendency to move from rural to urban areas, coming to rely on handouts or refuse from humans. They adapt well to human presence, and form larger troops in human-dominated landscapes than in forests. Rhesus monkeys live in patches of forest within agricultural areas, which gives them access to agroecosystem habitats and makes them at ease in navigating through them. The southern and
3360-687: Is a colony of rhesus macaques on Morgan Island , one of the Sea Islands in the South Carolina Lowcountry . They were imported in the 1970s for use in the local labs. Another research colony was established by the Caribbean Primate Research Center of the University of Puerto Rico on the island of Cayo Santiago , off of Puerto Rico . There are no predators on the island, and humans are not permitted to land, except as part of
3480-719: Is a significant study area with almost 44% of Nepal's land area containing suitable habitat for rhesus macaques but only having 8% of such suitable area being protected national parks. Rhesus macaques are rated as one of the top ten crop-raiding wildlife species in Nepal, which adds to their negative perception. Suggestions to mitigate conflict include "prioritizing forest restoration programs, strategic management plans designed to connect isolated forest fragments with high rhesus macaque population densities, creating government programs that compensate farmers for income lost due to crop-raiding, and educational outreach that informs local villagers of
3600-498: Is abundant, they are distributed in patches, and forage throughout the day in their home ranges. They drink water when foraging, and gather around streams and rivers. Rhesus macaques have specialized pouch-like cheeks, allowing them to temporarily hoard their food. It has specialised cheek pouches where it can temporarily store food and also eats invertebrates, including adult and larval insects, spiders, lice, honeycombs, crabs and bird eggs. With an increase in anthropogenic land changes,
3720-446: Is believed to be the result of controlling parenting styles . The rhesus monkey has been used as a model for studying aging of the ovaries of primate females. Ovarian aging was found to be associated with increased DNA double strand breaks and reduced DNA repair in granulosa cells , that is, somatic cells closely associated with developing oocytes . In several experiments giving mirrors to rhesus monkeys, they looked into
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3840-446: Is brown or grey in color and has a pink face, which is bereft of fur. It has, on average, 50 vertebrae and a wide rib cage. Its tail averages between 20.7 and 22.9 cm (8.1 and 9.0 in). Adult males measure about 53 cm (21 in) on average and weigh about 7.7 kg (17 lb). Females are smaller, averaging 47 cm (19 in) in length and 5.3 kg (12 lb) in weight. The ratio of arm length to leg length
3960-553: Is considered sacred at some Hindu temples and on some small islands, but as a pest around farms and villages. Typically, it prefers disturbed habitats and forest periphery. Humans have transported crab-eating macaques to at least five islands: Mauritius , West Papua , Ngeaur , Tinjil Island near Java, and Kabaena Island off of Sulawesi , and to Kowloon Hills of Hong Kong . There was no indigenous human population on Mauritius. Early exploration of Mauritius by Phoenicians , Swahili people and Arab merchants has been suggested but it
4080-527: Is currently being tested in Hong Kong to investigate its use as potential population control. Crab-eating macaques have been in West Papua for around 30 to 100 years, but this population has not expanded, remaining at around 60 to 70 individuals. There is little known of the population on Kabaena Island, Sulawesi. These crab-eating macaques appear to have distinct morphology, which may suggest that they have been on
4200-460: Is dependent on the tolerance of other group members. In crab-eating macaques, successful social group living requires postconflict resolution. Usually, less dominant individuals lose to a higher-ranking individual when conflict arises. After the conflict has taken place, lower-ranking individuals tend to fear the winner of the conflict to a greater degree. In one study, this was seen in the ability to drink water together. Postconflict observations showed
4320-463: Is due to the observation that food was given to kin for a significantly longer period of time than needed. The benefit to the mother is decreased due to less food availability for herself and the cost remains great for nonkin due to not receiving food. If these results are correct, crab-eating macaques are unique in the animal kingdom, as they appear not only to behave according to the kin selection theory, but also act spitefully toward one another. After
4440-461: Is enforcing no feed regulations that only allow provisioning by trained staff at scheduled times. Regulating visitor behaviours that provoke aggressive responses from macaques, including noise regulation, greatly benefits conflict reduction. Replacing food-conditioned behaviours established by human visitors and further human education will greatly aid in returning co-existence between rhesus macaques and humans. Another method of population management
4560-419: Is estimated at approximately USD$ 200,000 in agriculture and USD$ 150,000 in horticulture. Quantification of crop and financial loses is challenging. Farmers' negative views of macaques may cause them to perceive higher than actual losses. This has led to harsh actions against rhesus macaque communities. Other factors in rhesus perception include economic status, farmer economic stability, cultural attitudes towards
4680-442: Is expected due to female philopatry . Macaque social groups have a clear dominance hierarchy among females, these ranks are stable over a female's lifetime and the matriline's rank may be sustained for generations. Matrilines creating interesting group dynamics, for example males are dominant to females at the individual level but groups of closely related females can have some level of dominance over males. The dominant male within
4800-501: Is likely correlated to the booming Macaque breeding industry on Mauritius. As crab-eating macaques are considered invasive and destructive this justifies their use in biomedical research. On Mauritius macaques are also perceived as sacred, source of tourism, pets, pest, and food. Crab eating macaques first appeared on Ngeaur Island, during German rule in the early 20th century. Population size has fluctuated between 800 and 400 individuals. The population losses due to eradication efforts, yet
4920-650: Is likely to threaten population viability, e.g., harvesting for biomedical research targets females. The crab-eating macaque is highly adaptive, living near and benefiting from humans and environmental modifications. Crab-eating macaques live in matrilineal groups ranging from 10 to 85 members, but most often fall in the range of 35–50. Group size varies greatly, especially between non-provisioned and provisioned groups. Large groups are found secondary forest, savanna and thorn scrub vegetation, and urban habitats and temples. Smaller groups are found in primary forest, swamp and mangrove forests. Groups will break into subgroups during
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5040-499: Is mostly herbivorous , feeding mainly on fruit , but also eating seeds , roots , buds , bark , and cereals . It is estimated to consume around 99 different plant species in 46 families. During the monsoon season, it gets much of its water from ripe and succulent fruit. Rhesus macaques living far from water sources lick dewdrops from leaves and drink rainwater accumulated in tree hollows. They have also been observed eating termites , grasshoppers , ants , and beetles . When food
5160-421: Is often referred to as the long-tailed macaque due to its tail, which is the length of their body and head combined. The name crab-eating macaque refers to it to it being seen foraging beaches for crabs. Another common name for M. fascicularis , often used in laboratory settings, is the cynomolgus monkey which derives from Greek Kynamolgoi meaning "dog milkers". It has also been suggested that cynomolgus refers to
5280-433: Is provisioned. The crab-eating macaque exhibits particularly low tolerance for swallowing seeds. Despite its inability to digest seeds, many primates of similar size swallow large seeds, up to 25 mm (0.98 in), and simply defecate them whole. The crab-eating macaque, though, spits seeds out if they are larger than 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in). This decision to spit seeds is thought to be adaptive; it avoids filling
5400-551: Is seen in crab eating macaques at Uluwatu population in Bali, and is described as a population specific behavioral practice, prevalent and persistent across generations and characterized by marked intergroup variation. Synchronized expression of robbing and bartering was socially influenced and more specifically explained by response facilitation. This result further supports the cultural nature of robbing and bartering. Token-robbing and token/reward-bartering are cognitively challenging tasks for
5520-639: Is significant because the perception of crab-eating macaques being invasive and destructive to "native" biodiversity are used as a justification for use in biomedical research. It is important to be aware of perceptions, and how we categorize other beings because, for example, the label of "pest" or "invasive" provides justification and moral comfort about killing those that don't "belong" – these lives are viewed as not legitimate, killable, bare life lacking grievability. "Weed" and "non-weed" species are distinguished based on that species ability to thrive in close proximity and association with human settlements. This label
5640-539: Is the "present rump", where an individual raises its tail and exposes its genitals to the dominant one. A dominant individual threatens another individual by standing quadrupedally and making a silent "open mouth stare" accompanied by the tail sticking straight. During movements, macaques make coos and grunts. These are also made during affiliative interactions, and approaches before grooming. When they find rare food of high quality, macaques emit warbles, harmonic arches, or chirps. When in threatening situations, macaques emit
5760-420: Is the case. An aggressor's scratching decreases significantly after reconciliation. This suggests reconciliation rather than a property of the conflict is the cause of the reduction in scratching behavior. Though these results seem counterintuitive, the anxiety of the aggressor appears to have a basis in the risks of ruining cooperative relationships with the opponent. In a study, a group of crab-eating macaques
5880-472: Is translocation. Translocation of problem macaques in urban rhesus communities in India has been employed as a non-lethal solution to human–macaque conflicts. Translocation can be seen as a short-term fix, as macaques may return or other rhesus groups may take their place. Translocation is also hampered by a lack of suitable alternate locations. Another tool of population management is sterilisation and/or contraceptive programmes. Fertility control looks to be
6000-488: Is well known to science. Due to its relatively easy upkeep in captivity, wide availability, and closeness to humans anatomically and physiologically, it has been used extensively in medical and biological research on human and animal health-related topics. It has given its name to the Rh factor , one of the elements of a person's blood group , by the discoverers of the factor, Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener . The rhesus macaque
6120-483: The Bion missions . Albert II became the first primate and first mammal in space during a U.S. V-2 rocket suborbital flight on 14 June 1949, and died on impact when a parachute failed. Another rhesus monkey, Able, was launched on a suborbital spaceflight in 1959, and was among the first living beings (along with Miss Baker , a squirrel monkey on the same mission) to travel in space and return alive. On 25 October 1999,
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#17330855878366240-504: The Caribbean Primate Research Center of the University of Puerto Rico on the island of Cayo Santiago , off Puerto Rico , where approximately 1800 of the monkeys live. No predators are on the island, and humans are not permitted to land except as part of the research programmes. The colony is provisioned to some extent, but about half of its food comes from natural foraging. Rhesus macaques, like many macaques, carry
6360-473: The IUCN Red List ; it is threatened by habitat loss due to rapid land use changes in the landscapes of Southeast Asia and the surging demand by the medical industry during the COVID-19 pandemic . A 2008 review of population trends suggested a need for better monitoring of populations due to increased wild trade and rising levels of human-macaque conflict, which continue to decrease overall population levels despite
6480-586: The Japanese macaque . Most species are omnivorous , with diets ranging from fruits, leaves, seeds, buds, and mushrooms to insects, spiders, and smaller vertebrates. All species possess cheek pouches in which they can store food. Gestation lasts around six to seven months. Young are weaned after three to 12 months and are fully mature within three to five years. The life expectancy of some species can be as long as 50 years. The Cercopithinae are often split into two tribes , Cercopithecini and Papionini , as shown in
6600-983: The Malay Peninsula and Singapore , the Maritime Southeast Asia islands of Sumatra , Java , and Borneo , offshore islands, the islands of the Philippines , and the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal . This primate is a rare example of a terrestrial mammal that violates the Wallace line , being found out across the Lesser Sunda Islands . It lives in a wide variety of habitats, including primary lowland rainforests , disturbed and secondary rainforests, shrubland, and riverine and coastal forests of nipa palm and mangrove . It also easily adjusts to human settlements and
6720-598: The fascicularis clade, thus it is argued that M. mulatta evolved from a fascicularis -like ancestor that reached mainland from its homeland in Indonesia around 1mya. A phylogenetic analysis found evidence that the fascicularis group originated from an ancient hybridization between the sinica and silenus groups ~3.45–3.56 mya, soon after the initial separation of two parent lineages (proto- sinica and proto- silenus ) ~3.86 mya. This divergence and subsequent hybridization occurred during rapid glacial-eustatic fluctuations in
6840-479: The herpes B virus . This virus does not typically harm the monkey, but is very dangerous to humans in the rare event that it jumps species , for example in the 1997 death of Yerkes National Primate Research Center researcher Elizabeth Griffin. Work on the genome of the rhesus macaque was completed in 2007, making the species the second nonhuman primate whose genome was sequenced. Humans and macaques apparently share about 93% of their DNA sequence and shared
6960-527: The 1970s, India was the largest supplier of macaques, mostly rhesus macaques, but put a ban on export because when it became apparent that monkeys were used to test military weapons. After this ban, crab-eating macaques began to be used more in biomedical research. Imports of crab-eating macaques in the US and elsewhere began to increase during the worldwide reduction and subsequent ban of rhesus macaque exports from India. Cercopithecinae The Cercopithecinae are
7080-459: The CITES appendices. The international trade in crab-eating macaques is a multibillion-dollar industry. Crab-eating macaques are sold for up to $ 20,000 to $ 24,000, and prices rise when supply reduces. International crab-eating macaque trade does not appear to follow a particular trend but continues to change over time. Although peak exports often correlate with declarations of public health emergences. In
7200-530: The Chinese-derived and the Indian-derived. Generally brown or grey in colour, it is 47–53 cm (19–21 in) in length with a 20.7–22.9 cm (8.1–9.0 in) tail and weighs 5.3–7.7 kg (12–17 lb). It is native to South , Central , and Southeast Asia and has the widest geographic range of all non-human primates , occupying a great diversity of altitudes and habitats. The rhesus macaque
7320-462: The IUCN Red List. The Philippine long-tailed macaque ( M. f. philippensis ) is listed as near threatened, and M. f. condorensis is vulnerable. All other subspecies are listed as data deficient and need further study; although recent work is showing M. f. aurea and M. f. karimondjawae need increased protection. The crab-eating macaque is one of the most widely traded species of mammal listed on
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#17330855878367440-448: The Portuguese or the Dutch in the late 1500s to early 1600s. This founder population likely came from Java, although a mixed origin has been suggested. From the mid-1980s to mid-1990s the population of crab-eating macaques on Mauritius was estimated at 35,000 to 40,000. The present population is not known but estimates indicate it may be as low as 8,000. This significant decline in the population
7560-617: The Rhesus macaques have endured the longest and are the only ones to show continual population growth. The species' adaptable nature, generalized diet, and larger size as to reduce the chance of cold stress or predator attack are thought to be reasons for their success. Despite the risks, the macaques have continued to enjoy long-standing support from residents in Florida, strongly disagreeing with their removal. The Silver Springs colony has continued to grow in size and range, being commonly sighted in both
7680-459: The Uluwatu macaques that revealed unprecedented economic decision-making processes, i.e., value based token selection and payoff maximization. This spontaneous, population specific, prevalent, cross-generational, learned and socially influenced practice may be the first example of a culturally maintained token economy in free-ranging animals. The crab-eating macaque has been categorized as Endangered on
7800-561: The United States, where they are considered an invasive species. Colonies have been established in Florida , Puerto Rico , and South Carolina Around the spring of 1938, a colony of rhesus macaques was released in and around Silver Springs in Florida by a tour boat operator known locally as "Colonel Tooey" to enhance his "Jungle Cruise". Tooey had been hoping to profit from the boom in jungle adventure stories in film and print media, buying
7920-580: The crab-eating macaque was placed on the list of 100 most invasive species. For example, they are considered an invasive alien species (IAS) on Mauritius, articles argue for long-tailed macaques spreading seeds of invasive plants, competing with native species like the Mauritian flying fox , and having a detrimental impact on native threatened species. Several authors pointed out that the present evidence indicates that predation on birds by monkeys may have been overestimated. address these accusations and they point out
8040-401: The crab-eating macaques do not prefer primary forest thus it is unlikely that Mauritius macaques were ever a major source of indigenous forest destruction. The primary driver of bird extinction has been habitat destruction by humans. Sussman and Tattersall mention that the Dutch abandoned the island in 1710–12 due to monkeys and rats destroying plantations, they point out that the human population
8160-474: The day throughout their range. Composition of groups is multi-male/multi-female but females outnumber males with the sex ratio varying between 1:5–6 and 1:2. Groups exhibit female philopatry with males emigrating from natal group at puberty. Males leave natal group as late juveniles or subadults before the age of seven. On average, adult females and juveniles in groups are related at the level of cousins, whereas adult males are unrelated. Higher relatedness in females
8280-438: The dominant male. Thus, adult males gain dominance by age and experience. In the group, macaques position themselves based on rank. The "central male subgroup" contains the two or three oldest and most dominant males which are codominant, along with females, their infants, and juveniles. This subgroup occupies the center of the group and determines the movements, foraging, and other routines. The females of this subgroup are also
8400-475: The early Pleistocene: high sea levels may have led to the initial separation of proto- sinica and proto- silenus while the subsequent lowering of sea levels facilitated the secondary contact needed for hybridization. Known fossils indicate that crab-eating macaques inhabited the Sunda Shelf since at least early Pleistocene, ~1mya. It is likely that crab-eating macaques were introduced to Timor and Flores (both on
8520-506: The east side of the Wallace line), by humans around 4,000–5,000 years ago. Crab-eating macaques are the only species on both sides of the Wallace line. The possible stages of crab-eating macaque evolution and dispersal were proposed: Crab-eating macaques are sexually dimorphic, males weigh between 4.7 and 8.3 kg and females weigh 2.5–5.7 kg. The height of an adult male is between 412-648mm and 385-505mm for adult females. Their tails are
8640-452: The edges of macaque habitats. In urban settings, planting food trees within city periphery and country parks aim to discourage macaques from entering nearby residential areas for food. In areas of tourism, human behaviour change is necessary to prevent conflict. One method is to introduce public education programs as well as restrict visitors to specific viewing platforms, with the goal to minimize physical proximity. An important aspect
8760-450: The female's own troop are preferred over higher-ranking males. Outside of the consortship period, males and females return the prior behavior of not exhibiting preferential treatment or any special relationship. The breeding period can last up to eleven days, and a female usually mates with numerous males during that time. Male rhesus macaques have been observed to fight for access to sexually receptive females and they suffer more wounds during
8880-551: The first primate astronaut in 1948. The rhesus is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List . The name "rhesus" is reminiscent of the mythological king Rhesus of Thrace , a minor character in the Iliad . However, the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Audebert who named the species, stated: "it has no meaning". The rhesus macaque is also known colloquially as the "rhesus monkey". According to Zimmermann's first description of 1780,
9000-400: The genus Macaca likely occurred ~4.5 mya between an ancestor of the silenus group and a fascicularis -like ancestor from which non- silenus species later evolved. The species of the fascicularis group (which include m. fascicularis, m. mulatta, and m. fuscata) share a common ancestor that lived 2.5 mya. It is suggested that M. fascicularis are the most plesiomorphic (ancestral) taxon in
9120-520: The given species and the frequency and intensity of wildlife conflicts. All of the above have resulted in changes in conservation and management with legal rhesus macaque culling issued in 2010. Human-macaque conflict is also occurring in China, specifically in the area of Longyang District, Baoshan City, Yunnan Province. The peak period of conflict occurs from August–October. Factors associated with accessibility and availability of food and shelter appear to be
9240-916: The group. DNA tests indicate that dominant males sire most of the offspring in natural crab-eating macaque troops. Reproductive success in females is also linked to dominance. High ranking females have more offspring over their life-time than low-ranking females – higher ranking females reproduce at a younger age and their offspring have a higher chance of survival. Crab-eating macaques are omnivorous frugivores and eat fruits, leaves, flowers, shoots, roots, invertebrates, and small animals in variable quantities. They feed on cultivated crops such as rice, sweet potatoes, coconuts, bananas, sugar cane. Macaques have also been reported to feed on food scraps in refuse/trash. Fruit makes up 40% to over 80% of diet in wild crab eating macaque populations, except in highly provisioned populations or highly disturbed environments (Sussman et al. 2011). In Padangtegal Bali macaque 70% of their diet
9360-590: The groups, and have the responsibility of communicating with other macaque groups and making alarm calls. Rhesus social behaviour has been described as despotic, in that high-ranking individuals often show little tolerance, and frequently become aggressive towards non-kin. Top-ranking female rhesus monkeys are known to sexually coerce unreceptive males and also physically injure them, biting off digits and damaging their genitals. Rhesus macaques have been observed engaging in interspecies grooming with Hanuman langurs and with Sambar deer . Rhesus macaques interact using
9480-401: The importance of conservation and protecting biodiversity ". Mitigation strategies offers the most effective solutions to reduce conflict occurring between rhesus macaques and humans in Nepal. India is another country that is seeing the rise of human-macaque conflict. Macaque-human conflict particularly occurs in the twin hill-states of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh with such conflict being
9600-403: The infants of lower-ranking females. These kidnappings can result in the death of the infants, as the other female is usually not lactating . A young juvenile stays mainly with its mother and relatives. As male juveniles get older, they become more peripheral to the group. Here they play together, forming crucial bonds that may help them when they leave their natal group. Males that emigrate with
9720-677: The island for a long period of time. Between 1988 and 1994, a total of 520 crab-eating macaques including 58 males and 462 females were released on Tinjil Island for the purpose of starting a natural habitat breeding facility. This may be a sustainable way of supplying monkeys for research, but it is in a legal gray area for trading regulations, using captive bred codes (F, C) rather than wild-caught (W). Because crab-eating macaques are synanthropic, enhancing their visibility to humans, this leads to an overestimation in their population size. Researchers have been raising alarms about crab-eating macaque population decline at least since 1986. Many authors cite
9840-533: The key drivers of human-macaque conflict, with an overall increase between the years of 2012 and 2021. One key factor of conflict that directly affects the human-macaque relationship is visibility. Visibility of rhesus macaques in agroecosystem -dominated areas largely impacts conflict between humans and rhesus macaques. The conspicuous presence of rhesus macaques in and around farms results in farmers believing that macaques cause heavy crop depredations which, in turn, have led to negative perceptions and actions against
9960-562: The largest range, followed by M.f. aurea . The other seven subspecies are isolated on small islands: M.f. antriceps, M.f. condorensis , and M.f. karimondjiwae all populate small shallow-water fringe-islands; M.f. umbrosa, M.f. fusca, M.f. lasiae , and M.f. tua all inhabit deep-water fringing-islands. The macaque originated in northeastern Africa some 7 million years ago and spread through most of continental Asia by 5.5 million years ago , and subdivided into four groups (sylvanus, sinica, silenus, and fascicularis). The earliest split in
10080-546: The length of their head and body combined. Dorsal pelage is generally greyish or brownish with a white underbelly with black and white highlights around the crown and face. The face skin is brownish to pinkish except for the eyelids which are white. Adults are usually bearded on and around the face, except for around the snout and eyes. Older females have the fullest beards, with males' being more whisker like. Subspecies on islands seem to have black coloration of their pelage and large island, and mainland subspecies are lighter. Along
10200-458: The list of genera below. Homo Pan Hylobates Macaca Papio Theropithecus Cercocebus Chlorocebus Erythrocebus Miopithecus Colobus Pygathrix Nasalis Trachypithecus Rhesus macaque The rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta ), colloquially rhesus monkey , is a species of Old World monkey . There are between six and nine recognised subspecies split between two groups,
10320-630: The mating season. Female macaques first breed when they are four years old and reach menopause at around twenty-five years of age. Male macaques generally play no role in raising the young but do have peaceful relationships with the offspring of their consort pairs. Manson and Parry found that free-ranging rhesus macaques avoid inbreeding. Adult females were never observed to copulate with males of their own matrilineage during their fertile periods. Mothers with one or more immature daughters in addition to their infants are in contact with their infants less than those with no older immature daughters, because
10440-488: The mirrors and groomed themselves, as well as flexed various muscle groups. This behaviour indicates that they recognised and were aware of themselves . The macaque–human relationships is complex and culturally specific, ranging from relatively peaceful coexistence to extreme levels of conflict. Conflicts tend to result from rapidly changing agricultural practices, increasing urbanisation, and clearing of woodlands and other territory, pushing macaques into human settlements in
10560-817: The monkey's stomach with wasteful bulky seeds that cannot be used for energy. It also can help the plants by distributing seeds to new areas: Crab-eating macaques eat durians , such as Durio graveolens and D. zibethinus , and are a major seed disperser for the latter species. The crab-eating macaque can become a synanthrope , living off human resources. It feeds in cultivated fields on young dry rice, cassava leaves, rubber fruit, taro plants, coconuts, mangos, and other crops, often causing significant losses to local farmers. In villages, towns, and cities, it frequently takes food from garbage cans and refuse piles. It can become unafraid of humans in these conditions, which can lead to macaques directly taking food from people, both passively and aggressively. Crab eating macaques are
10680-457: The monkeys to be attractions at his river boat tour. Tooey apparently hadn't been aware of rhesus macaques being proficient swimmers, meaning his original plan to keep the monkeys isolated to an island inside the river didn't work. The macaques nevertheless remained in the region thanks to daily feedings by Tooey and the boat tours. Tooey subsequently released additional monkeys to add to the gene pool and avoid inbreeding . The traditional story that
10800-511: The monkeys were released for scenery enhancement in the Tarzan movies that were filmed at that location is false, as the only Tarzan movie filmed in the area, 1939's Tarzan Finds a Son! , does not contain rhesus macaques. Whilst this was the first colony established and the longest lasting, other colonies have since been established intentionally or accidentally. A population in Titusville, Florida ,
10920-403: The most dominant of the entire group. The farther to the periphery a subgroup is, the less dominant it is. Subgroups on the periphery of the central group are run by one dominant male, of a rank lower than the central males, and he maintains order in the group, and communicates messages between the central and peripheral males. A subgroup of subordinate, often subadult, males occupy the very edge of
11040-482: The mothers may pass the parenting responsibilities to their daughters. High-ranking mothers with older immature daughters also reject their infants significantly more than those without older daughters and tend to begin mating earlier in the mating season than expected based on their dates of parturition the preceding birth season. Infants farther from the center of the groups are more vulnerable to infanticide from outside groups. Some mothers abuse their infants, which
11160-492: The northern distributional limits for rhesus and bonnet macaques , respectively, currently run parallel to each other in the western part of India, are separated by a large gap in the center, and converge on the eastern coast of the peninsula to form a distribution overlap zone. This overlap region is characterized by the presence of mixed-species troops, with pure troops of both species sometimes occurring even in close proximity to one another. The range extension of rhesus macaque –
11280-506: The northern part of range crab eating macaques hybridize with rhesus macaques ( M. mulatta ). They also have been known to hybridize with southern pig-tailed macaques ( M . nemestrina ). Hybrids also occur across subspecies too. Rhesus and crab eating macaques hybridize within a contact zone where their ranges overlap, which has been proposed to lie between 15 and 20 degrees north and includes Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam. Their offspring are fertile, and they continue to mate which leads to
11400-436: The number at 550–600 rhesus macaques living in the state; officials have caught more than 1,000 of the monkeys in the past decade. Most of the captured monkeys tested positive for herpes B virus , which leads wildlife officials to consider the animals a public health hazard. Of the three monkey species to have had any lasting presence in Florida, the other two being African vervet monkeys and South American squirrel monkeys ,
11520-453: The older daughters from forming coalitions against her. The youngest daughter is the most dependent on the mother, and would have nothing to gain from helping her siblings in overthrowing their mother. Since each daughter had a high rank in her early years, rebelling against her mother is discouraged. Juvenile male macaques also exist in matrilineal lines, but once they reach four to five years of age, they are driven out of their natal groups by
11640-641: The only old world monkey known to use stone tools in their daily foraging. This is mainly observed in populations along the ocean of Thailand and Myanmar ( M.f. aurea subspecies). A 1887 report described observations to tool use in a Myanmar population. Over 100 years later the first published report is published in 2007. describing crab eating macaques in Thailand using ax shaped stones to crack rock oysters, detached gastropods, bivalves, and swimming crabs. Also in Thailand, crab eating macaques have been observed using tools to crack open oil palm nuts in abandoned plantations,
11760-503: The other, after grooming the other, and without prior grooming. After grooming took place, the individual that received the grooming was much more likely to support their groomer than one that had not previously groomed that individual. Crab-eating macaques demonstrate two of the three forms of suggested postconflict behavior. In both captive and wild studies, they demonstrated reconciliation, or an affiliative interaction between former opponents, and redirection, or acting aggressively towards
11880-503: The park grounds, the nearby city of Ocala, Florida , and the neighboring Ocala National Forest . Individuals likely originating from this colony have been seen hundreds of kilometers away, in St. Augustine, Florida and St. Petersburg, Florida . One infamous individual, named the "Mystery Monkey of Tampa Ba y", evaded capture for years, inspiring social media posts and a song. Exogenous colonies have also resulted from research activities. There
12000-462: The population has survived despite typhoons and WWII bombing on the island. In Kowloon Hills there are groups of differing species and their hybrids, where they were released during the 1910s. Rhesus macaques and crab-eating macaques interbred and hybridized. Tibetan macaques were also released but did not interbreed. This location has become a popular tourist attraction. The immunovaccine porcine zona pellucida (PZP), which causes infertility in females,
12120-412: The primate tree will allow us "to trace back the evolutionary changes that occurred at various time points, leading from the common ancestors of the primate clade to Homo sapiens ," said Bruce Lahn , University of Chicago. After the human and chimpanzee genomes were sequenced and compared, it was usually impossible to tell whether differences were the result of the human or chimpanzee gene changing from
12240-629: The rapid uptake of oil palm nutcracking shows macaques ability to take advantage of anthropogenic changes and the recent establishment of this behavior indicates the potential for macaques to exhibit cultural tendencies. Unfortunately, human activities can negatively impact tool-using macaques, thus disrupting the persistence of these stone tool use traditions. Another instance of tool use is washing and rubbing foods, such as sweet potatoes, cassava roots, and papaya leaves, before consumption. Crab-eating macaques either soak these foods in water or rub them through their hands as if to clean them. They also peel
12360-495: The research program. Another Puerto Rico research colony was released into the Desecheo National Wildlife Refuge in 1966. As of 2022 they are continuing to do ecological harm, damage crops amounting to $ 300,000/year and cost $ 1,000,000/year to manage. The Rhesus macaque is diurnal , and both arboreal and terrestrial . It is quadrupedal and, when on the ground, it walks digitigrade and plantigrade . It
12480-414: The rhesus macaque became the first cloned primate with the birth of Tetra . January 2001 had the birth of ANDi , the first transgenic primate; ANDi carries foreign genes originally from a jellyfish . Though most studies of the rhesus macaque are from various locations in northern India, some knowledge of the natural behavior of the species comes from studies carried out on a colony established by
12600-535: The rhesus macaque has evolved alongside intense and rapid environmental disturbance associated with human agriculture and urbanization resulting in proportions of their diet to be altered. In psychological research, rhesus macaques have demonstrated a variety of complex cognitive abilities , including the ability to make same-different judgments, understand simple rules, and monitor their own mental states. They have even been shown to demonstrate self-agency , an important type of self-awareness. In 2014, onlookers at
12720-868: The rhesus macaque is distributed in eastern Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Bhutan , as far east as the Brahmaputra Valley , Barak valley and in peninsular India , Nepal , and northern Pakistan . Today, this is known as the Indian rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta mulatta , which includes the morphologically similar M. rhesus villosus , described by True in 1894, from Kashmir , and M. m. mcmahoni , described by Pocock in 1932 from Kootai, Pakistan . Several Chinese subspecies of rhesus macaques were described between 1867 and 1917. The molecular differences identified among populations, however, are alone not consistent enough to conclusively define any subspecies. The Chinese subspecies can be divided as follows: The rhesus macaque
12840-529: The search for resources. A 2021 study stated that human-macaque conflict is one of the most critical challenges faced by wildlife managers in the South- and Southeast-Asian regions. Conflict between rhesus macaques and humans is at all-time high, with areas once forested habitat being converted to industrial agriculture. In Nepal, the expansion of monocultures, increased forest fragmentation, degradation of natural habitats and changing agricultural practices have led to
12960-480: The social group, and have highly stable matrilineal hierarchies in which a female's rank is dependent on the rank of her mother. In addition, a single group may have multiple matrilineal lines existing in a hierarchy, and a female outranks any unrelated females that rank lower than her mother. Rhesus macaques are unusual in that the youngest females tend to outrank their older sisters. This is likely because young females are more fit and fertile. Mothers seem to prevent
13080-411: The species' wide distribution. Each subspecies faces differing levels of threats, and too little information is available on some subspecies to assess their conditions. M. f. umbrosa is likely of important biological significance and has been recommended as a candidate for protection in the Nicobar Islands , where its small, native population has been seriously fragmented. It is listed as vulnerable on
13200-496: The species. Whereas visibility in urban areas can result in a positive relationship, areas include around temples, and tourist areas where their dietary needs are largely met by food provisioning. Towards the end of March 2018, it was reported that a monkey had entered a house in the village of Talabasta, Odisha , India and kidnapped a baby. The baby was later found dead in a well. Though monkeys are known to attack people, enter homes and damage property, this reported behaviour
13320-404: The sweet potatoes, using their incisors and canine teeth. Adolescents appear to acquire these behaviors by observational learning of older individuals. Robbing and bartering is a behavioral pattern in which free ranging nonhuman primates spontaneously steal an object from a human and then hold onto that object until that or another human solicits an exchange by offering food. This behavior
13440-503: Was also used in the well-known experiments on maternal deprivation carried out in the 1950s by controversial comparative psychologist Harry Harlow . Other medical breakthroughs facilitated by the use of the rhesus macaque include: The U.S. Army , the U.S. Air Force , and NASA launched rhesus macaques into outer space during the 1950s and 1960s, and the Soviet/Russian space program launched them into space as recently as 1997 on
13560-473: Was conducted in which food was given to 11 females. They were then given a choice to share the food with kin or nonkin. The kin altruism hypothesis suggests the mothers would preferentially give food to their own offspring. Yet eight of the 11 females did not discriminate between kin and nonkin. The remaining three did, in fact, give more food to their kin. The results suggest it was not kin selection , but instead spite that fueled feeding kin preferentially. This
13680-573: Was derived from makaku , a word in Ibinda , a language of Central Africa ( kaku means monkey in Ibinda). The specific epithet fascicularis is Latin for a small band or stripe. Sir Thomas Raffles , who gave the animal its scientific name in 1821, did not specify what he meant by the use of this word. In Indonesia and Malaysia, the crab-eating macaque and other macaque species are known generically as kera. The crab-eating macaque has several common names. It
13800-450: Was featured at the now defunct Tropical Wonderland theme park, which coincidentally was at one time endorsed by Johnny Weissmuller , who had portrayed Tarzan in the aforementioned films. This association might have contributed to the misconception the monkeys were associated directly with the Tarzan films. This colony either escaped or was intentionally released, roaming the woods of the area for
13920-410: Was given ownership of a food object. Adult females favored their own offspring by passively, yet preferentially, allowing them to feed on the objects they held. When juveniles were in possession of an object, mothers robbed them and acted aggressively at an increased rate towards their own offspring compared to other juveniles. These observations suggest close proximity influences behavior in ownership, as
14040-437: Was low at this time and the crab eating macaques would have had plenty of primary forest to exploit, yet they chose to brave the dangers of raiding plantations. They do not deny that macaques on Mauritius prey on bird eggs and disseminate seeds of exotic plants yet the major loss of species on Mauritius is due to habitat loss caused by humans – macaques are successful because they prefer secondary forest and disturbed habitats. This
14160-516: Was not intentionally proposed to disparage crab-eating macaques but this term, like pest and invasive, can affect how people perceive this species and can trigger negatives perceptions. Previously ten subspecies of Macaca fascicularis , but the Philippine long-tailed macaque ( M.f. philippinensis ) is under dispute and is tentatively removed from IUCN Red List assessments, with those individuals included with M.f. fascicularis . M.f. fascicularis has
14280-456: Was not until the early 16th century that there is hard evidence of human presence on the island, with the Portuguese using it as a refreshing post. The Dutch reached the island in 1598 and attempted a permanent settlement from 1638 to 1658 when they abandoned the island, they resettled again from 1664 to 1710, but abandoned the island again due in part to monkeys and rats destroying plantations. Crab-eating macaques were brought to Mauritius either by
14400-488: Was unusual. Crop-raiding is seen as one of the most important behaviours to change to reduce conflicts. One example is the implementation of guards in agricultural settings to chase off intruding monkeys using dogs, slingshots, and firecrackers. This method is non-lethal and can alter behavioural patterns of crop-raiding monkeys. Another strategy that farmers can employ is to plant alternative, buffer crops which are unattractive to monkeys in high-conflict zones, such as along
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