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56-398: Counterweights are often used in traction lifts (elevators), cranes and funfair rides. In these applications, the expected load multiplied by the distance that load will be spaced from the central support (called the "tipping point") must be equal to the counterweight's mass times its distance from the tipping point in order to prevent over-balancing either side. This distance times mass

112-781: A tread and a body. The tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air . Before rubber was developed, tires were metal bands fitted around wooden wheels to hold the wheel together under load and to prevent wear and tear. Early rubber tires were solid (not pneumatic). Pneumatic tires are used on many vehicles, including cars , bicycles , motorcycles , buses , trucks , heavy equipment , and aircraft . Metal tires are used on locomotives and railcars , and solid rubber (or other polymers) tires are also used in various non-automotive applications, such as casters , carts , lawnmowers , and wheelbarrows . Unmaintained tires can lead to severe hazards for vehicles and people, ranging from flat tires making

168-440: A wheelwright , would cause the tire to expand by heating it in a forge fire, placing it over the wheel, and quenching it, causing the metal to contract back to its original size to fit tightly on the wheel. The first patent for what appears to be a standard pneumatic tire appeared in 1847 and was lodged by Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson . However, this idea never went into production. The first practical pneumatic tire

224-494: A 1968 article in an influential American magazine, Consumer Reports , highlighting the superiority of radial construction. The US tire industry lost its market share to Japanese and European manufacturers, which bought out US companies. Tires may be classified according to the type of vehicle they serve. They may be distinguished by the load they carry and by their application, e.g. to a motor vehicle, aircraft, or bicycle. Light-duty tires for passenger vehicles carry loads in

280-633: A bias tire are many, including longer tread life, better steering control, lower rolling resistance , improved fuel economy, more uniform wear, higher heat resistance, fewer blowouts, and a steadier, more comfortable ride at speed. Disadvantages, besides a higher cost than that of bias tires, are a harder ride at low speeds and generally worse performance on rough terrain. Radial tires are also seldom seen in diameters of greater than 42 inches, as such tires are difficult to make. Bias tire (bias-ply, or cross-ply) construction utilizes body ply cords that extend diagonally from bead to bead, usually at angles in

336-472: A flexible cushion that absorbs shock as the tire rolls over rough features on the surface. Tires provide a footprint, called a contact patch , designed to match the vehicle's weight and the bearing on the surface that it rolls over by exerting a pressure that will avoid deforming the surface. The materials of modern pneumatic tires are synthetic rubber , natural rubber , fabric, and wire, along with carbon black and other chemical compounds. They consist of

392-618: A life of 200 km, while those used on heavy trucks may have a life approaching 100,000 km. The truck tires have less traction and also thicker rubber. Traction also varies with contaminants. A layer of water in the contact patch can cause a substantial loss of traction. This is one reason for grooves and siping of automotive tires. The traction of trucks, agricultural tractors, wheeled military vehicles, etc. when driving on soft and/or slippery ground has been found to improve significantly by use of Tire Pressure Control Systems (TPCS). A TPCS makes it possible to reduce and later restore

448-479: A separate inner tube . Semi-pneumatic tires have a hollow center, but they are not pressurized. They are lightweight, low-cost, puncture-proof, and provide cushioning. These tires often come as a complete assembly with the wheel and even integral ball bearings . They are used on lawn mowers , wheelchairs , and wheelbarrows . They can also be rugged, typically used in industrial applications, and are designed to not pull off their rim under use. An airless tire

504-524: A thin layer of brass, various additives will also be added to the rubber to improve binding, such as resorcinol / HMMM mixtures. The elastomer, which forms the tread and encases the cords to protect them from abrasion and hold them in place, is a key component of pneumatic tire design. It can be composed of various composites of rubber material – the most common being styrene-butadiene copolymer – with other chemical compounds such as silica and carbon black . Optimizing rolling resistance in

560-507: A variety of profiles and carry loads in the range of 4,000 to 5,500 pounds (1,800 to 2,500 kg) on the drive wheel. These are typically mounted in tandem on the drive axle. Aircraft, bicycles, and a variety of industrial applications have distinct design requirements. Tire construction spans pneumatic tires used on cars, trucks, and aircraft, but also includes non-automotive applications with slow-moving, light-duty, or railroad applications, which may have non-pneumatic tires. Following

616-687: A whole, providing the main advantage of this construction, better traction and smoother motion on uneven surfaces, with a greater tendency to conform to rocky ground and throw off mud and clay, especially because the rubber is usually of a softer compound than that used on radial tires. However, this conformity increases a bias tire's rolling resistance, and its stiffness allows less control, traction , and comfort at higher speeds, while shear between its overlapping plies causes friction that generates heat. Still, bias tires benefit from simpler structure and so cost less than like-size radials, and they remain in use on heavy equipment and off-road vehicles, although

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672-557: Is a non-pneumatic tire that is not supported by air pressure. They are most commonly used on small vehicles, such as golf carts, and on utility vehicles in situations where the risk of puncture is high, such as on construction equipment. Many tires used in industrial and commercial applications are non-pneumatic, and are manufactured from solid rubber and plastic compounds via molding operations. Solid tires include those used for lawnmowers, skateboards, golf carts, scooters , and many types of light industrial vehicles, carts, and trailers. One of

728-430: Is a term used for a tire that failed inspection during manufacturing - but only for superficial/cosmetic/aesthetic reasons. For example, a tire with white painted lettering which is smudged or incomplete might be classified as a "blem". Blem tires are fully functional and generally carry the same warranty as flawless tires - but are sold at a discount. The materials of modern pneumatic tires can be divided into two groups,

784-412: Is called the load moment . By extension, a counterbalance force balances or offsets another force, as when two objects of equal weight, power, or influence are acting in opposition to each other. Metronome : A wind-up mechanical metronome has an adjustable weight and spring mechanism that allows the speed to be adjusted by placement of the weight on the spindle. The tempo speed is decreased by moving

840-416: Is characterized by a system of circumferential grooves, lateral sipes, and slots for road tires or a system of lugs and voids for tires designed for soft terrain or snow. Grooves run circumferentially around the tire and are needed to channel away water. Lugs are that portion of the tread design that contacts the road surface. Grooves, sipes, and slots allow tires to evacuate water. The design of treads and

896-426: Is constructed with robust steel cables encased in durable, specially formulated rubber designed to resist stretching. The precision of the bead's fit is crucial, as it seals the tire against the wheel, maintaining air pressure integrity and preventing any loss of air. The bead's design ensures a secure, non-slip connection, preventing the tire from rotating independently from the wheel during vehicle motion. Additionally,

952-503: Is defined as the usable force for traction divided by the weight on the running gear (wheels, tracks etc.) i.e.:       usable traction = coefficient of traction × normal force . Traction between two surfaces depends on several factors: In the design of wheeled or tracked vehicles, high traction between wheel and ground is more desirable than low traction, as it allows for higher acceleration (including cornering and braking) without wheel slippage. One notable exception

1008-468: Is in the motorsport technique of drifting , in which rear-wheel traction is purposely lost during high speed cornering. Other designs dramatically increase surface area to provide more traction than wheels can, for example in continuous track and half-track vehicles. A tank or similar tracked vehicle uses tracks to reduce the pressure on the areas of contact. A 70-ton M1A2 would sink to the point of high centering if it used round tires. The tracks spread

1064-527: Is key in achieving safety and fuel efficiency in the transportation sector. The most common elastomer material used today is a styrene - butadiene copolymer. It combines the properties of polybutadiene , which is a highly rubbery polymer ( Tg = -100 °C) having high hysteresis and thus offering good wet grip properties, with the properties of polystyrene , which is a glassy polymer ( Tg = 100 °C) having low hysteresis and thus offering low rolling resistance in addition to wear resistance. Therefore,

1120-614: Is not now accepted by the best English authorities, and is unrecognized in the US" , while Fowler's Modern English Usage of 1926 describes that "there is nothing to be said for 'tyre', which is etymologically wrong, as well as needlessly divergent from our own [sc. British] older & the present American usage". However, over the 20th century, tyre became established as the standard British spelling. The earliest tires were bands of leather , then iron (later steel ) placed on wooden wheels used on carts and wagons . A skilled worker, known as

1176-437: Is that part of the tire at the edge of the tread as it makes the transition to the sidewall. Plies are layers of relatively inextensible cords embedded in the rubber to hold its shape by preventing the rubber from stretching in response to the internal pressure. The orientations of the plies play a large role in the performance of the tire and are one of the main ways that tires are categorized. Blem (short for "blemished")

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1232-436: The maximum tractive force between a body and a surface, as limited by available friction; when this is the case, traction is often expressed as the ratio of the maximum tractive force to the normal force and is termed the coefficient of traction (similar to coefficient of friction ). It is the force which makes an object move over the surface by overcoming all the resisting forces like friction , normal loads(load acting on

1288-471: The radial tire method of construction. Michelin had bought the bankrupt Citroën automobile company in 1934 to utilize this new technology. Because of its superiority in handling and fuel economy, use of this technology quickly spread throughout Europe and Asia. In the US, the outdated bias-ply tire construction persisted until the Ford Motor Company adopted radial tires in the early 1970s, following

1344-522: The vulcanization of natural rubber using sulfur, as well as the development of the "clincher" rim for holding the tire in place laterally on the wheel rim. Synthetic rubbers were invented in the laboratories of Bayer in the 1920s. Rubber shortages in the United Kingdom during WWII prompted research on alternatives to rubber tires with suggestions including leather, compressed asbestos, rayon, felt, bristles, and paper. In 1946, Michelin developed

1400-420: The " Polyglas " trademark tire featuring a polyester carcass with belts of fiberglass. The "belted" tire starts two main plies of polyester, rayon, or nylon annealed as in conventional tires, and then placed on top are circumferential belts at different angles that improve performance compared to non-belted bias tires. The belts may be fiberglass or steel. Tubeless tires are pneumatic tires that do not require

1456-608: The 1840s when the English began shrink-fitting railway car wheels with malleable iron. Nevertheless, many publishers continued using tire . The Times newspaper in London was still using tire as late as 1905. The spelling tyre began to be commonly used in the 19th century for pneumatic tires in the UK. The 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica states that "The spelling 'tyre'

1512-472: The 1968 Consumer Reports announcement of the superiority of the radial design, radial tires began an inexorable climb in market share, reaching 100% of the North American market in the 1980s. Radial tire technology is now the standard design for essentially all automotive tires, but other methods have been used. Radial (or radial-ply) tire construction utilizes body ply cords extending straight across

1568-455: The 70 tons over a much larger area of contact than tires would and allow the tank to travel over much softer land. In some applications, there is a complicated set of trade-offs in choosing materials. For example, soft rubbers often provide better traction but also wear faster and have higher losses when flexed—thus reducing efficiency. Choices in material selection may have a dramatic effect. For example: tires used for track racing cars may have

1624-408: The bottom of the tread grooves that indicate the tire has reached its wear limit. When the tread lugs are worn to the point that the wear bars connect across the lugs, the tires are fully worn and should be taken out of service, typically at a remaining tread depth of 1.6 millimetres (0.063 in). The tire bead is the part of the tire that contacts the rim on the wheel. This essential component

1680-416: The cords that make up the ply and the elastomer which encases them. The cords, which form the ply and bead and provide the tensile strength necessary to contain the inflation pressure, can be composed of steel , natural fibers such as cotton or silk , or synthetic fibers such as nylon or kevlar . Good adhesion between the cords and the rubber is important. To achieve this the steel cords are coated in

1736-401: The earthmoving market has shifted to radials. A belted bias tire starts with two or more bias plies to which stabilizer belts are bonded directly beneath the tread. This construction provides a smoother ride that is similar to the bias tire, while lessening rolling resistance because the belts increase tread stiffness. The design was introduced by Armstrong, while Goodyear made it popular with

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1792-421: The elastomer material is a key challenge for reducing fuel consumption in the transportation sector. It is estimated that passenger vehicles consume approximately 5~15% of their fuel to overcome rolling resistance, while the estimate is understood to be higher for heavy trucks. However, there is a trade-off between rolling resistance and wet traction and grip: while low rolling resistance can be achieved by reducing

1848-503: The environment. Moreover, the regular use of tires produces micro-plastic particles that contain these chemicals that both enter the environment and affect human health. The word tire is a short form of attire , from the idea that a wheel with a tire is a dressed wheel. Tyre is the oldest spelling, and both tyre and tire were used during the 15th and 16th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, tire became more common in print. The spelling tyre did not reappear until

1904-482: The first pneumatic tires. Cyclist Willie Hume demonstrated the supremacy of Dunlop's tires in 1889, winning the tire's first-ever races in Ireland and then England. In Dunlop's tire patent specification dated 31 October 1888, his interest is only in its use in cycles and light vehicles. In September 1890, he was made aware of an earlier development, but the company kept the information to itself. In 1892, Dunlop's patent

1960-436: The global automotive tire market indicate continued growth through 2027. Estimates put the value of worldwide sales volume around $ 126 billion in 2022, it is expected to reach the value of over $ 176 billion by 2027. Production of tires is also experiencing growth. In 2015, the US manufactured almost 170 million tires. Over 2.5 billion tires are manufactured annually, making the tire industry a major consumer of natural rubber. It

2016-419: The grooves, which allow the water from the grooves to escape sideways and mitigate hydroplaning . Different tread designs address a variety of driving conditions. As the ratio of tire tread area to groove area increases, so does tire friction on dry pavement, as seen on Formula One tires , some of which have no grooves. High-performance tires often have smaller void areas to provide more rubber in contact with

2072-408: The interaction of specific tire types with the roadway surface affects roadway noise , a source of noise pollution emanating from moving vehicles. These sound intensities increase with higher vehicle speeds. Tires treads may incorporate a variety of distances between slots ( pitch lengths ) to minimize noise levels at discrete frequencies. Sipes are slits cut across the tire, usually perpendicular to

2128-495: The interplay between the bead's dimensions and the wheel's width significantly influences the vehicle's steering responsiveness and stability, as it helps to maintain the tire’s intended shape and contact with the road. The sidewall is that part of the tire, or bicycle tire , that bridges between the tread and bead. The sidewall is largely rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords that provide for tensile strength and flexibility. The sidewall contains air pressure and transmits

2184-458: The most common applications for solid tires is for material handling equipment (forklifts). Such tires are installed utilizing a hydraulic tire press. Wooden wheels for horse-drawn vehicles usually have a wrought iron tire. This construction was extended to wagons on horse-drawn tramways, rolling on granite setts or cast iron rails . The wheels of some railway engines and older types of rolling stock are fitted with railway tires to prevent

2240-423: The need to replace the entirety of a wheel. The tire, usually made of steel, surrounds the wheel and is primarily held in place by interference fit . Aircraft tires may operate at pressures that exceed 200 pounds per square inch (14  bar ; 1,400  kPa ). Some aircraft tires are inflated with nitrogen to "eliminate the possibility of a chemical reaction between atmospheric oxygen and volatile gases from

2296-402: The range of 30 to 40 degrees from the direction of travel. Successive plies are laid at opposing angles, forming a crisscross pattern to which the tread is applied. Such a design is resistant to sidewall deformation and punctures (and to punctures’ expansion, or “torque splitting”) and therefore durable in severe use. Since the tread and sidewalls share their casing plies, the tire body flexes as

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2352-639: The range of 550 to 1,100 pounds (250 to 500 kg) on the drive wheel. Light-to-medium duty trucks and vans carry loads in the range of 1,100 to 3,300 pounds (500 to 1,500 kg) on the drive wheel. They are differentiated by speed rating for different vehicles, including (starting from the lowest speed to the highest): winter tires, light truck tires, entry-level car tires, sedans and vans, sport sedans, and high-performance cars. Apart from road tires, there are special categories: Other types of light-duty automotive tires include run-flat tires and race car tires: Heavy-duty tires for large trucks and buses come in

2408-530: The ratio of the two monomers in the styrene-butadiene copolymer is considered key in determining the glass transition temperature of the material, which is correlated to its grip and resistance properties. Non-exhaust emissions of particulate matter, generated by the wearing down of brakes, clutches, tires, and road surfaces, as well as by the suspension of road dust, constitute a little-known but rising share of emissions from road traffic and significantly harm public health. Associated components of tires include

2464-435: The road for higher traction, but may be compounded with softer rubber that provides better traction, but wears quickly. Mud and snow (M&S) tires employ larger and deeper slots to engage mud and snow. Snow tires have still larger and deeper slots that compact snow and create shear strength within the compacted snow to improve braking and cornering performance. Wear bars (or wear indicators) are raised features located at

2520-511: The tiers in negative 'Z' axis), air resistance , rolling resistance , etc. Traction can be defined as: a physical process in which a tangential force is transmitted across an interface between two bodies through dry friction or an intervening fluid film resulting in motion, stoppage or the transmission of power. In vehicle dynamics, tractive force is closely related to the terms tractive effort and drawbar pull , though all three terms have different definitions. The coefficient of traction

2576-400: The tire inner liner producing a tire explosion". Pneumatic tires are manufactured in about 450 tire factories around the world. Tire production starts with bulk raw materials such as rubber, carbon black, and chemicals and produces numerous specialized components that are assembled and cured. Many kinds of rubber are used, the most common being styrene-butadiene copolymer . Forecasts for

2632-512: The tire pressure during continuous vehicle operation. Increasing traction by use of a TPCS also reduces tire wear and ride vibration. Tire wear A tire ( British spelling : tyre ) is a ring-shaped component that surrounds a wheel's rim to transfer a vehicle's load from the axle through the wheel to the ground and to provide traction on the surface over which the wheel travels. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and bicycles, are pneumatically inflated structures, providing

2688-461: The torque applied by the drive axle to the tread to create traction but supports little of the weight of the vehicle, as is clear from the total collapse of the tire when punctured. Sidewalls are molded with manufacturer-specific detail, government-mandated warning labels, and other consumer information. Sidewall may also have sometimes decorative ornamentation that includes whitewall or red-line inserts as well as tire lettering . The shoulder

2744-507: The tread from bead to bead—so that the cords are laid at approximately right angles to the centerline of the tread, and parallel to one another—as well as stabilizer belts directly beneath the tread. The plies are generally made of nylon, polyester, or steel, and the belts of steel, fiberglass, or Kevlar . The tire’s footprint, wider than a bias tire’s, and flexible sidewalls provide a better grip in turns, and its circumferential belts stabilize it. The advantages of this construction over that of

2800-590: The vehicle inoperable to blowouts , where tires explode during operation and possibly damage vehicles and injure people. The manufacture of tires is often highly regulated for this reason. Because of the widespread use of tires for motor vehicles, tire waste is a substantial portion of global waste. There is a need for tire recycling through mechanical recycling and reuse, such as for crumb rubber and other tire-derived aggregate , and pyrolysis for chemical reuse, such as for tire-derived fuel . If not recycled properly or burned , waste tires release toxic chemicals into

2856-468: The viscoelastic properties of the rubber compound (low tangent (δ) ), it comes at the cost of wet traction and grip, which requires hysteresis and energy dissipation (high tangent (δ)). A low tangent (δ) value at 60 °C is used as an indicator of low rolling resistance, while a high tangent (δ) value at 0 °C is used as an indicator of high wet traction. Designing an elastomer material that can achieve both high wet traction and low rolling resistance

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2912-431: The weight to a higher spindle marking or increased by moving it to a lower marking. Other examples include: Traction force Traction , traction force or tractive force is a force used to generate motion between a body and a tangential surface, through the use of either dry friction or shear force . It has important applications in vehicles , as in tractive effort . Traction can also refer to

2968-697: Was declared invalid because of the prior art by forgotten fellow Scot Robert William Thomson of London (patents London 1845, France 1846, USA 1847). However, Dunlop is credited with "realizing rubber could withstand the wear and tear of being a tire while retaining its resilience". John Boyd Dunlop and Harvey du Cros worked through the ensuing considerable difficulties. They employed inventor Charles Kingston Welch and acquired other rights and patents, which allowed them some limited protection of their Pneumatic Tyre business's position. Pneumatic Tyre would become Dunlop Rubber and Dunlop Tyres . The development of this technology hinged on myriad engineering advances, including

3024-528: Was estimated that for 2019 onwards, at least 3 billion tires would be sold globally every year. However, other estimates put worldwide tire production of 2,268 million in 2021 and is predicted to reach 2,665 million tires by 2027. As of 2011, the top three tire manufacturing companies by revenue were Bridgestone (manufacturing 190 million tires), Michelin (184 million), Goodyear (181 million); they were followed by Continental , and Pirelli . The Lego group produced over 318 million toy tires in 2011 and

3080-410: Was made in 1888 on May Street, Belfast , by Scots-born John Boyd Dunlop , owner of one of Ireland's most prosperous veterinary practices. It was an effort to prevent the headaches of his 10-year-old son Johnnie while riding his tricycle on rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as an exercise for the boy and was a regular visitor. Fagan participated in designing

3136-549: Was recognized by Guinness World Records as having the highest annual production of tires by any manufacturer. A tire comprises several components: the tread, bead, sidewall, shoulder, and ply. The tread is the part of the tire that comes in contact with the road surface. The portion that is in contact with the road at a given instant in time is the contact patch . The tread is a thick rubber, or rubber/composite compound formulated to provide an appropriate level of traction that does not wear away too quickly. The tread pattern

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