The Corubal , also known as the Rio Corubal or Tomine , is a river of West Africa , a major tributary of the Geba River . For a short distance, it forms the international border between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau . It has a length of approximately 560 kilometres (350 mi).
113-795: During the Portuguese Colonial War in February 1969, the Portuguese army, while retreating from territories in the Madina do Boe sector, lost 47 men while crossing the Corubal. The incident became known as the Cheche Disaster . A protocol agreement called the "Corubal River Agreement" was signed on 21 October 1978 at Conakry by the Republic of Guinea and the Republic of Guinea Bissau to develop and manage
226-450: A cephalothorax , with the abdomen curving around underneath it. As with the larvae, the pupa must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which it does through a pair of respiratory trumpets on its cephalothorax. After a few days as a pupa, the dorsal surface of the cephalothorax splits and the adult mosquito emerges. Like all mosquitoes, adult Anopheles species have slender bodies with three sections: head, thorax and abdomen. The head
339-651: A political crisis between Portugal and the United States . A failed Portuguese military coup known as the Abrilada , attempted in an effort to overthrow the authoritarian Estado Novo regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, received covert U.S. support. In response, Salazar moved to consolidate his power, ordering an immediate military response to the violence occurring in Angola. The U.S.'s official stance on Portugal would shift following Richard Nixon 's election as president. Under
452-649: A black football player from Portuguese East Africa named Eusébio , were other examples of efforts towards assimilation and multiracialism in the post-World War II period. According to Mozambican historian João Paulo Borges Coelho , the Portuguese colonial army was largely segregated along terms of race and ethnicity until 1960. There were originally three classes of soldier in Portuguese overseas service: commissioned soldiers (whites), overseas soldiers (African assimilados ), and native or indigenous Africans ( indigenato' ). These categories were renamed to first, second, and third class in 1960, which effectively corresponded to
565-591: A blood meal while avoiding host defenses. Anopheles species live both in tropical areas known for malaria such as sub-Saharan Africa, and in colder latitudes. Malaria outbreaks have in the past occurred in colder climates, for example during the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada during the 1820s. Anopheles species that can transmit malaria are not limited to malaria-endemic areas, so areas where they have been eliminated are constantly at risk of reintroduction of
678-547: A deep border incursion operation into Angola to attack guerrilla-controlled areas of the country following the coup. On 3 January 1961 Angolan peasants in the region of Baixa de Cassanje , Malanje boycotted the Cotonang Company's cotton fields where they worked, demanding better working conditions and higher wages. Cotonang, a company owned by European investors, used native African labor to produce an annual cotton crop for export abroad. The uprising, later to become known as
791-659: A degree comparable to that of the Europeans. Statistically, Portuguese Africa's white Portuguese population were indeed wealthier and more educated than the indigenous majority. After conflict erupted between the UPA and MPLA and Portuguese military forces, U.S. President John F. Kennedy advised António de Oliveira Salazar (via the US consulate in Portugal) that Portugal should abandon its African colonies, and that course of action by Kennedy would lead to
904-704: A diplomatic mission in Bucharest, the first of its kind in Eastern Europe. In 1973, Ceaușescu recognized FRELIMO as "the only legitimate representative of the Mozambican people", an important precedent. Samora Machel stressed that—during his trip to the Soviet Union—he and his delegation were granted "the status that we are entitled to" due to Romania's official recognition of FRELIMO. In terms of material support, Romanian trucks were used to transport weapons and ammunition to
1017-421: A few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms , usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate. The duration from egg to adult varies considerably among species, and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as little as five days, but it can take 10–14 days in tropical conditions. Males live for about
1130-529: A full description, see the main article: Taxonomy of Anopheles Anopheles ( / ə ˈ n ɒ f ɪ l iː z / ) is a genus of mosquito first described by the German entomologist J. W. Meigen in 1818, and are known as nail mosquitoes and marsh mosquitoes . Many such mosquitoes are vectors of the parasite Plasmodium , a genus of protozoans that cause malaria in birds , reptiles , and mammals , including humans. The Anopheles gambiae mosquito
1243-447: A good deal among senior Portuguese commanders during the conflict in Angola, Guinea, and Mozambique. General Francisco da Costa Gomes , perhaps the most successful counterinsurgency commander, sought good relations with local civilians, and employed African units within the framework of an organized counterinsurgency plan. General António de Spínola , by contrast, appealed for a more political and psycho-social use of African soldiers. On
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#17328866583841356-440: A message to President António de Oliveira Salazar advising Portugal to abandon its African colonies shortly after the outbreak of violence in 1961. Instead, after a coup led by pro-U.S. forces failed to depose him, Salazar consolidated power and immediately sent reinforcements to the overseas territories, setting the stage for continued conflict in Angola. Similar situations played out in other overseas Portuguese territories. By
1469-583: A military coup in 1974 , and the change in government brought the conflict to an end. The war was a decisive ideological struggle in Lusophone Africa, surrounding nations, and mainland Portugal. The prevalent Portuguese and international historical approach considers the Portuguese Colonial War as was perceived at the time—a single conflict fought in the three separate Angolan , Guinea-Bissau and Mozambican theaters of operations, rather than
1582-478: A nearly worldwide distribution) belongs to the subfamily Anophelinae alongside two other genera: Bironella (restricted to Australia ) and Chagasia (restricted to the Neotropics ). The taxonomy remains incompletely settled. Classification into species is based on morphological characteristics – wing spots, head anatomy, larval and pupal anatomy, chromosome structure, and more recently, on DNA sequences. In
1695-568: A number of separate conflicts as the emergent African countries aided each other and were supported by the same global powers and even the United Nations during the war. India's 1954 annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and 1961 annexation of Goa are sometimes included as part of the conflict. Unlike other European nations during the 1950s and 1960s, the Portuguese Estado Novo regime did not withdraw from its African colonies, or
1808-680: A period of economic collapse and political instability, but received general support from the public in its aim of ending the Portuguese war effort in Africa. In the ex-colonies, officers suspected of sympathizing with the prior regime, even black officers, such as Captain Marcelino da Mata, were imprisoned and tortured, while African soldiers who had served in native Portuguese Army units were forced to petition for Portuguese citizenship or else face reprisals from their former enemies in Angola, Guinea, or Mozambique. The Carnation Revolution of 25 April 1974 came as
1921-558: A policy of assimilation, multiracialism, and civilising mission , or lusotropicalism , as a way of integrating Portuguese colonies, and their peoples, more closely with Portugal itself. For the Portuguese ruling regime, the overseas empire was a matter of national interest , to be preserved at all costs. As far back as 1919, a Portuguese delegate to the International Labour Conference in Geneva declared: "The assimilation of
2034-565: A shock to the United States and other Western powers, as most analysts and the Nixon administration had concluded that Portuguese military success on the battlefield would resolve any political divisions within Portugal concerning the conduct of the war in Portuguese Africa, providing the conditions for US investment there. Most concerned was the apartheid government of South Africa , which launched
2147-531: A short generation time, may rapidly evolve resistance, as experienced during the Global Malaria Eradication Campaign of the 1950s. The use of insecticides in agriculture has resulted in resistance in mosquito populations, implying that an effective control program must monitor for resistance and switch to other means if resistance is detected. In 2016, a CRISPR-Cas9 gene drive system was proposed to eradicate Anopheles gambiae , by deleting
2260-498: A small minority of each territory's total population. Nevertheless, the costs of continuing the wars in Africa imposed a heavy burden on Portugal's resources; by the 1970s, the country was spending 40 percent of its annual budget on the war effort. General Spínola was dismissed by Dr. Marcelo Caetano, the last prime minister of Portugal under the Estado Novo regime, over the general's publicly announced desire to open negotiations with
2373-456: A source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen . Anopheles can be distinguished from other mosquitoes by the palps , which are as long as the proboscis, and by the presence of discrete blocks of black and white scales on the wings. Adults can further be identified by their typical resting position: both sexes rest with their abdomens pointing up, unlike culicine mosquitoes. Adult mosquitoes usually mate within
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#17328866583842486-511: A time, becoming dormant in hot dry weather, allowing them to persist through the African dry season . Further, Anopheles have been documented travelling in baggage, such as on aircraft. Parasites of Anopheles include Microsporidia of the genera Amblyospora , Crepidulospora , Senoma and Parathelohania . Two distinct life cycles are found in the Microsporidia. In the first type,
2599-415: A total of 40,000 reinforcements to Angola and Mozambique during World War I. By this time, the regime in Portugal had been through two major political upheavals—from monarchy to republic in 1910 and then to a military dictatorship after a coup in 1926. These changes resulted in a tightening of Portuguese control in Angola. In the early years of the expanded colony, near-constant warfare was occurring between
2712-453: A week, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar . Males cannot feed on blood, as it appears to produce toxic effects and kills them within a few days, around the same lifespan as a water-only diet. Females feed on sugar sources for energy, but usually require a blood meal for the development of eggs. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female rests for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on
2825-456: A well-developed head with mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax and a nine-segment abdomen . It has no legs. In contrast to other mosquitoes, the Anopheles larva lacks a respiratory siphon, so it positions itself so that its body is parallel to the surface of the water. In contrast, the feeding larva of culicine mosquitoes attach themselves to the water surface with the posterior siphon,
2938-537: Is specialized for acquiring sensory information and for feeding. It contains the eyes and a pair of long, many-segmented antennae . The antennae are important for detecting host odours, as well as of breeding sites where females lay eggs. Female mosquitoes carrying Plasmodium parasites, the causative agents of malaria, are significantly more attracted to human breath and odours than uninfected mosquitoes. The head has an elongated, forward-projecting proboscis used for feeding, and two maxillary palps . These palps carry
3051-560: Is the best-known species of marsh mosquito that transmits the Plasmodium falciparum , which is a malarial parasite deadly to human beings; no other mosquito genus is a vector of human malaria. The genus Anopheles diverged from other mosquitoes approximately 100 million years ago ( mya ), and, like other mosquitoes, the eggs, larvae , and pupae are aquatic . The Anopheles larva has no respiratory siphon through which to breathe, so it breathes and feeds with its body horizontal to
3164-471: Is thus very high, indicating significant irregularity. Over an observation period of 18 years, the minimum monthly discharge was 5.4 m3/ s, while the maximum was 1,600 m3/s. In the lower stretches of the two rivers, the banks have Mangrove forests and marshy lands, which are also infested with anopheles mosquitoes. In the upper reaches of the river the basin has savanna woodland . Most of Guinea-Bissau's populations of antelope species are situated in
3277-472: The dsx gene, causing female sterility. Such a gene drive system has been shown to suppress an entire caged A. gambiae population within 7–11 generations, typically less than a year. This has raised concerns with both the efficiency of a gene drive system as well as the ethical and ecological impact of such an eradication program. Therefore, there have been efforts to use the gene drive system to more efficiently introduce genes of Plasmodium resistance into
3390-431: The Anopheles over all other prey regardless of whether it actually is carrying blood. Juvenile spiders have adopted an Anopheles -specific prey-capture behavior, using the posture of Anopheles as a primary cue to identify them. Anopheles has a distinctive resting posture with its abdomen angled up. In this case, the spider approaches from behind the mosquito and under its abdomen, and then attacks from below. Since
3503-472: The Baixa de Cassanje revolt , was led by two previously unknown Angolans, António Mariano and Kulu-Xingu. During the protests, African workers burned their identification cards and attacked Portuguese traders. The Portuguese Air Force responded to the rebellion by bombing twenty villages in the area, allegedly using napalm in an attack that resulted in some 400 indigenous Angolan deaths. Anopheles For
Corubal River - Misplaced Pages Continue
3616-463: The Carnation Revolution military coup of April 1974 in mainland Portugal . The withdrawal resulted in the expulsion of hundreds of thousands of Portuguese citizens plus military personnel of European, African, and mixed ethnicity from the former Portuguese territories and newly independent African nations. This migration is regarded as one of the largest peaceful, if forced, migrations in
3729-520: The Communist Bloc which had the Soviet Union as its lead nation. By 1973, the war had become increasingly unpopular due to its length and financial costs, the worsening of diplomatic relations with other United Nations members, and the role it had always played as a factor of perpetuation of the entrenched Estado Novo regime and the nondemocratic status quo in Portugal. The end of the war came with
3842-640: The Mozambique Liberation Front in Mozambique. During the ensuing conflict, atrocities were committed by all forces involved. Throughout the period, Portugal faced increasing dissent, arms embargoes, and other punitive sanctions imposed by the international community, including by some Western Bloc governments, either intermittently or continuously. The anti-colonial guerrillas and movements of Portuguese Africa were heavily supported and instigated with money, weapons, training and diplomatic lobbying by
3955-545: The former colonies as the War of Liberation ( Guerra de Libertação ), and also known as the Angolan , Guinea-Bissau and Mozambican War of Independence , was a 13-year-long conflict fought between Portugal's military and the emerging nationalist movements in Portugal's African colonies between 1961 and 1974. The Portuguese regime at the time, the Estado Novo , was overthrown by
4068-784: The 1950s, the European mainland Portuguese territory was inhabited by a society that was poorer and had a much higher illiteracy rate than the average Western European societies or those of North America. It was ruled by an authoritarian and conservative right-leaning dictatorship, known as the Estado Novo regime. By this time, the Estado Novo regime ruled both the Portuguese mainland and several centuries-old overseas territories as theoretically co-equal departments. The possessions were Angola , Cape Verde , Macau , Mozambique , Portuguese Guinea , Portuguese India , Portuguese Timor , São João Baptista de Ajudá , and São Tomé and Príncipe . In reality,
4181-609: The 1962 by the Minister of the Overseas Adriano Moreira (the Universidade de Luanda in Angola and the Universidade de Lourenço Marques in Mozambique, awarding a range of degrees from engineering to medicine ); however, most of their students came from Portuguese families living in the two territories. Several personalities in Portuguese society, including one of the most idolized sports stars in Portuguese football history,
4294-490: The 1970s, including such officers as Captain (later Lt. Colonel) Marcelino da Mata, a Portuguese citizen born of native Guinean parents who rose to command from a first sergeant in a road engineering unit to a commander in the elite all-African Comandos Africanos , where he eventually became one of the most decorated soldiers in the Portuguese Army. Many native Angolans rose to positions of command, though of junior rank. By
4407-529: The African Commando Battalion ( Batalhão de Comandos Africanos ) commanded by General Almeida Bruno. While sub-Saharan African soldiers constituted a mere 18% of the total number of troops fighting in Portugal's African territories in 1961, this percentage rose dramatically over the next 13 years, with black soldiers constituting over 50% of all government forces fighting in Africa by April 1974. Coelho noted that perceptions of African soldiers varied
4520-399: The African and Asian malaria vectors ~ 100 million years ago . The cladogram is based on an analysis of mosquito genomes by Heafsey and colleagues in 2015: gambiae complex (Africa) A. epirotus & spp. A. stephensi & spp. A. dirus & spp. subgenus Anopheles subgenus Nyssorhynchus (Americas) Culicinae Muscomorpha The genus name Anopheles
4633-536: The Corubal River-Dulombi area. Hippopotamus make up an isolated population. Portuguese Colonial War 1,400,000 total men mobilized for military and civilian support service. 40–60,000 guerrillas ~29,000 casualties 41,000+ casualties The Portuguese Colonial War ( Portuguese : Guerra Colonial Portuguesa ), also known in Portugal as the Overseas War ( Guerra do Ultramar ) or in
Corubal River - Misplaced Pages Continue
4746-596: The FLNA, which included photos of decapitated civilians, men, women and children of both white and black ethnicity, was later displayed in the UN by Portuguese diplomats. The emergence of labor strikes, attacks by newly organized guerrilla movements, and the Santa Maria hijacking by Henrique Galvão began a path to open warfare in Angola. According to historical researchers such as José Freire Antunes, U.S. President John F. Kennedy sent
4859-543: The Islamic port of Ceuta in 1415 and several other towns in current-day Morocco in a Crusade against Islamic neighbors, managed to successfully establish themselves in the area. In Guinea, rival European powers had established control over the trade routes in the region, while local African rulers confined the Portuguese to the coast. These rulers then sent enslaved Africans to the Portuguese ports, or to forts in Africa from where they were exported. Thousands of kilometers down
4972-814: The Kaliba-Koribal River; the Corubal River is also called the Kaliba. The "Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Gambie" (OMVG) also known as "The Gambia River Basin Development Organization" was also agreed to be established to study and develop management plans for projects on the Gambia River, the Geba River and the Corubal River for power generation, irrigation, flood control, navigation, water quality and infrastrcutre. The agreement has also recognized
5085-591: The Katanga region, aiming to provide access to the sea for the richest mining district of the Belgian Congo. The line reached the Congo border in 1928. In 1914, both Angola and Mozambique had Portuguese army garrisons of around 2,000 men, African troops led by European officers. With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Portugal sent reinforcements to both colonies, because the fighting in the neighboring German African colonies
5198-554: The Late Oligocene ( 28.4 million years ago to 23 million years ago ). The ancestors of all flies including mosquitoes appeared 260 million years ago . The culicine and Anopheles clades of mosquitoes diverged between 120 million years ago and 150 million years ago . The Old and New World Anopheles species subsequently diverged between 80 million years ago and 95 million years ago . Anopheles darlingi diverged from
5311-581: The Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses “ which is a global instrument, adopted in 1997, to promote the equitable and sustainable development and management of river basins shared by two or more states. Using the provisions of this convention the existing agreement between the two basin states on development of Corubal River would need to be enlarged making specific provisions for "informing and guiding cooperation, as well as by providing
5424-744: The Mwenemutapa in the 1560s. However, the Portuguese traders and explorers settled in the coastal strip with greater success, and established strongholds safe from their main rivals in East Africa – the Omani Arabs , including those of Zanzibar . Portugal's colonial claim to the region was recognized by the other European powers during the 1880s, during the Scramble for Africa , and the final boundaries of Portuguese Africa were agreed by negotiation in Europe in 1891. At
5537-689: The PAIGC in Portuguese Guinea. The dismissal caused considerable public indignation in Portugal, and created favorable conditions for a military overthrow of the existing regime, which had lost all public support. On 25 April 1974 a military coup organized by left-wing Portuguese military officers, the Armed Forces Movement (MFA), overthrew the Estado Novo regime in what came to be known as the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon , Portugal. The coup resulted in
5650-420: The Portuguese and the various African rulers of the region. A systematic campaign of conquest and pacification was undertaken by the Portuguese. One by one, the local kingdoms were overwhelmed and abolished. By the middle of the 1920s, the whole of Angola was under control. Slavery had officially ended in Portuguese Africa, but the plantations were worked on a system of paid serfdom by African labour composed of
5763-587: The Shona kingdoms, including the Mutapa Empire 's (Mwenemutapa) metropolitan district, between 1512 and 1516. By the 1530s, small bands of Portuguese traders and prospectors penetrated the interior regions seeking gold, where they set up garrisons and trading posts at Sena and Tete on the Zambezi River and tried to establish a monopoly over the gold trade. The Portuguese finally entered into direct relations with
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#17328866583845876-553: The World War II, as communist and anticolonial ideologies spread across Africa, many clandestine political movements were established in support of independence using various interpretations of Marxist revolutionary ideology. These new movements seized on anti-Portuguese and anti-colonial sentiment to advocate the complete overthrow of existing governmental structures in Portuguese Africa. These movements alleged that Portuguese policies and development plans were primarily designed by
5989-500: The advice of Henry Kissinger , Nixon sought to reduce America's involvement in the Third World, delegating this role to "regional policemen" such as Joseph Mobutu of Congo-Léopoldville . This led to Nixon cutting off aid to Holden Roberto's FNLA and resuming normal trade relations with Portugal. While Portuguese forces had all but won the guerrilla war in Angola, and had stalemated FRELIMO in Mozambique, colonial forces were forced on
6102-399: The armed forces, where younger officers disenchanted with the Estado Novo regime and promotional opportunities began to identify ideologically with those calling for overthrow of the government and the establishment of a state based on Marxist principles. Nicolae Ceaușescu 's Romania offered consistent support to the African liberation movements. Romania was the first state that recognized
6215-402: The body pointing downwards. Larvae breathe through spiracles located on the eighth abdominal segment and so must come to the surface frequently. The larvae spend most of their time feeding on algae , bacteria , and other microorganisms in the thin surface layer. They dive below the surface only when disturbed. Larvae swim either by jerky movements of the entire body or through propulsion with
6328-495: The citizenry there. Portugal joined NATO as a founding member in 1949, and was integrated within the various fledgling military commands of NATO. NATO's focus on preventing a conventional Soviet attack against Western Europe was to the detriment of military preparations against guerrilla uprisings in Portugal's overseas provinces that were considered essential for the survival of the nation. The integration of Portugal in NATO resulted in
6441-453: The coast, in Angola, the Portuguese found consolidating their early advantage in establishing hegemony over the region even harder, due to the encroachment of Dutch traders. Nevertheless, the fortified Portuguese towns of Luanda (established in 1587 with 400 Portuguese settlers) and Benguela (a fort from 1587, a town from 1617) remained almost continuously in Portuguese hands. As in Guinea,
6554-462: The conflict in Guinea at the outset, but was forced to fight on to prevent an independent Guinea from serving as an inspirational model for insurgents in Angola and Mozambique. Despite continuing attacks by insurgent forces against targets throughout the Portuguese African territories, the economies of both Portuguese Angola and Mozambique had actually improved each year of the conflict, as had
6667-484: The day in Southern Africa, the territory was segregated along racial lines. Strict qualification criteria ensured that fewer than one in 100 black Mozambicans became full Portuguese citizens. Numerous subsidies were offered by the Estado Novo regime to those Portuguese who agreed to settle in Angola or Mozambique, including a special premium for each Portuguese man who agreed to marry an African woman. Salazar himself
6780-400: The defensive in Guinea, where PAIGC forces had carved out a large area of the rural countryside under effective insurgent control, using Soviet-supplied AA cannon and ground-to-air missiles to protect their encampments from attack by Portuguese air assets. Overall, the increasing success of Portuguese counterinsurgency operations and the inability or unwillingness of guerrilla forces to destroy
6893-417: The disease. Anopheles require bodies of water, possibly small and seasonal, for their aquatic larvae and pupae. Suitable habitats range from ponds to water tanks, swamps, ditches and puddles. The adults can however live in dry regions such as Africa's savanna and Sahel . They can travel far from water, and are sometimes blown hundreds of kilometres by suitable winds. Adults can aestivate for months at
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#17328866583847006-432: The early 1970s, the Portuguese authorities had fully perceived racial discriminatory policies and lack of investment in education as wrong and contrary to their overseas ambitions in Portuguese Africa, and willingly accepted a true color blindness policy with more spending in education and training opportunities, which started to produce a larger number of black high ranked professionals, including military personnel. After
7119-425: The economy of Portugal proper. Angola enjoyed an unprecedented economic boom during the 1960s, and the Portuguese government built new transportation networks to link the well-developed and highly urbanized coastal strip with the remote inland regions of the territory. The number of ethnic European Portuguese migrants from mainland Portugal (the metrópole ) continued to increase as well, though always constituting
7232-485: The economy of Portugal's African territories was seen as a victory for the Portuguese government policies. The Soviet Union, realising that military success by insurgents in Angola and Mozambique was becoming increasingly remote, shifted much of its military support to the PAIGC in Guinea, while increasing diplomatic efforts to isolate Portugal from the world community. The success of the socialist bloc in isolating Portugal diplomatically extended inside Portugal itself into
7345-434: The edges of streams and rivers, and small, temporary rain pools. Many species prefer habitats with vegetation. Others prefer habitats with none. Some breed in open, sun-lit pools, while others are found only in shaded breeding sites in forests. A few species breed in tree holes or the leaf axils of some plants. The pupa (also known as a tumbler) is comma-shaped when viewed from the side. The head and thorax are merged into
7458-564: The first country to formally recognize Mozambique. By early 1974, guerrilla operations in Angola and Mozambique had been reduced to sporadic ambush operations against the Portuguese in the rural countryside areas, far from the main centers of population. The only exception was Portuguese Guinea , where PAIGC guerrilla operations, strongly supported by neighbouring allies like Guinea and Senegal , were largely successful in liberating and securing large areas of Portuguese Guinea. According to some historians, Portugal recognized its inability to win
7571-484: The formation of a military élite who were critical in the planning and implementation of operations during the Overseas War. This "NATO generation" ascended quickly to the highest political positions and military command without having to provide evidence of loyalty to the regime. The Colonial War established a split between the military structure – heavily influenced by the western powers with democratic governments – and
7684-577: The front, as well as medicine, school material and agricultural equipment. Romanian tractors contributed to the increase in agricultural production. Romanian weapons and uniforms—reportedly of "excellent quality"—played a "decisive role" in FRELIMO's military progress. It was in early 1973 that FRELIMO made these statements about Romania's material support, in a memorandum sent to the Romanian Communist Party 's Central Committee. In 1974, Romania became
7797-480: The genus Anopheles is the sole vector for malaria, it has been studied intensively in the search for effective control methods. One important behavioral factor is the degree to which an Anopheles species prefers to feed on humans ( anthropophily ) or animals such as cattle or birds (zoophily). Anthropophilic Anopheles are more likely to transmit the malaria parasites from one person to another. Most Anopheles are not exclusively anthropophilic or zoophilic, including
7910-661: The genus was greatly advanced in 1901 when the English entomologist Frederick Vincent Theobald described 39 Anopheles species in his 5-volume monograph on the Culicidae. He was provided with mosquito specimens sent in to the British Museum (Natural History) from around the world, on the 1898 instruction of the Secretary of State for the Colonies , Joseph Chamberlain . Anopheles (with
8023-488: The gut flora may have a bearing on the success of infection of the mosquito host. The larval and pupal gut is largely colonized by photosynthetic cyanobacteria , while in the adult, gram-negative bacteria in the Pseudomonadota and Bacteroidota phyla predominate. Blood meals drastically reduce the diversity of microorganisms in the gut, favouring bacteria. Insecticides have offered a first line of approach to ridding areas of malarial mosquitoes. However, mosquitoes, with
8136-533: The independence of Guinea-Bissau, as well as the first to sign agreements with the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde and Angola's MPLA . In May 1974, Ceaușescu reaffirmed Romania's support for Angolan independence. As late as September 1975, Bucharest publicly supported all three Angolan liberation movements (FNLA, MPLA and UNITA). In the spring of 1972, Romania allowed FRELIMO to open
8249-405: The large majority of ethnic Africans who did not have resources to pay Portuguese taxes and were considered unemployed by the authorities. After World War II and the first decolonization events, this system gradually declined, but paid forced labor, including labor contracts with forced relocation of people, continued in many regions of Portuguese Africa until it was finally abolished in 1961. In
8362-652: The late 1950s, the Portuguese Armed Forces saw themselves confronted with the paradox generated by the dictatorial regime of the Estado Novo that had been in power since 1933; on one hand, the policy of Portuguese neutrality in World War II placed the Portuguese Armed Forces out of the way of a possible East-West conflict ; on the other, the regime felt the increased responsibility of keeping Portugal's vast overseas territories under control and protecting
8475-482: The long distance and low annual income of the average Portuguese and that of the indigenous overseas populations. An increasing number of African anticolonial movements called for total independence of the overseas African territories from Portugal. Some, like the UPA wanted national self-determination , while others wanted a new form of government based on Marxist principles. Portuguese leaders, including Salazar, attempted to stave off calls for independence by defending
8588-519: The mosquito (the extrinsic incubation period ) ranges from 10–21 days, depending on the parasite species and the temperature. If a mosquito does not survive long enough for the parasite to develop, then she transmits no parasites. It is not possible to measure directly the lifespans of mosquitoes in nature, but indirect estimates of daily survivorship have been made for several Anopheles species. Estimates of daily survivorship in Tanzania of A. gambiae ,
8701-443: The mouth brushes. Larvae develop through four stages, or instars , after which they metamorphose into pupae . At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their exoskeletons, or skin, to allow for further growth. The larvae occur in a wide range of habitats, but most species prefer clean, unpolluted water. Larvae of Anopheles have been found in freshwater or saltwater marshes, mangrove swamps, rice fields, grassy ditches,
8814-633: The other hand, General Kaúlza de Arriaga , the most conservative of the three, appears to have doubted the reliability of African forces outside his strict control, while continuing to view African soldiers as inferior to Portuguese troops. As the war progressed, Portugal rapidly increased its mobilized forces. Under the Salazar regime, a military draft required all males to serve three years of obligatory military service; many of those called up to active military duty were deployed to combat zones in Portugal's African overseas provinces. The national service period
8927-438: The outbreak of the insurgency. With illiteracy rates approaching 99% and almost no African enrollment in secondary schools, few African candidates could qualify for Portugal's officer candidate programs; most African officers obtained their commission as the result of individual competence and valour on the battlefield. As the war went on, an increasing number of native Africans served as noncommissioned or commissioned officers by
9040-590: The overseas provinces ( províncias ultramarinas ) as those territories had been officially called since 1951. During the 1960s, various armed independence movements became active—the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola , National Liberation Front of Angola , National Union for the Total Independence of Angola in Angola, African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde in Portuguese Guinea, and
9153-611: The parasite is transmitted by the oral route and is relatively species nonspecific. In the second, while again the oral route is the usual route of infection, the parasite is ingested within an already infected intermediate host. Infection of the insect larval form is frequently tissue-specific, and commonly involves the fat body . Vertical (transovarial) transmission also occurs. The parasitic Wolbachia bacteria have been studied for use as control agents. The jumping spider Evarcha culicivora indirectly feeds on vertebrate blood by preying on female Anopheles . Juvenile spiders choose
9266-613: The period of the Colonial War, became the goal of the independent territories. The former Portuguese territories in Africa became sovereign states, with Agostinho Neto in Angola, Samora Machel in Mozambique, Luís Cabral in Guinea-Bissau, Manuel Pinto da Costa in São Tomé and Príncipe, and Aristides Pereira in Cape Verde as the heads of state . When the Portuguese began trading on
9379-399: The political power of the regime. Some analysts see the " Botelho Moniz coup " of 1961 (also known as A Abrilada ) against the Portuguese government and backed by the U.S. administration, as the beginning of this rupture, the origin of a lapse on the part of the regime to keep up a unique command center, an armed force prepared for threats of conflict in the colonies. This situation caused, as
9492-471: The primary malaria vector in the western United States, A. freeborni . However, the primary malaria vectors in Africa , A. gambiae and A. funestus , are strongly anthropophilic and are consequently major vectors of human malaria. Once ingested by a mosquito, malaria parasites must undergo development within the mosquito before they are infectious to humans. The time required for the parasite to develop in
9605-403: The receptors for carbon dioxide , a major attractant that enables the mosquito to locate its host. The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax. The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development. This segmented body part expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time, serving as
9718-413: The relation of mainland Portuguese to their overseas possessions was that of colonial administrator to a subservient colony. Political, legislative, administrative, commercial, and other institutional relations between the colonies and Portugal-based individuals and organizations were numerous, though migration to, from, and between Portugal and its overseas departments was limited in size, due principally to
9831-615: The requisite education and technical skills. While access to basic, secondary, and technical education remained poor until the 1960s, a few Africans were able to attend schools locally or in some cases in Portugal itself. This resulted in the advancement of certain black Portuguese Africans who became prominent individuals during the war and its aftermath, including Samora Machel , Mário Pinto de Andrade , Marcelino dos Santos , Eduardo Mondlane , Agostinho Neto , Amílcar Cabral , Jonas Savimbi , Joaquim Chissano , and Graça Machel . Two state-run universities were founded in Portuguese Africa in
9944-494: The ruling authorities for the benefit of the territories' ethnic Portuguese population at the expense of local tribal control, the development of native communities, and the majority of the indigenous population, who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure to comply with government policies largely imposed from Lisbon. Many felt they had received too little opportunity or resources to upgrade their skills and improve their economic and social situation to
10057-512: The same categories. Later, after official discrimination based on skin colour was outlawed, some Portuguese commanders such as General António de Spínola began a process of "Africanization" of Portuguese forces fighting in Africa. In Portuguese Guinea, this included a large increase in African recruitment along with the establishment of all-black military formations such as the Black Militias ( Milícias negras ) commanded by Major Carlos Fabião and
10170-617: The same period. Control measures that rely on insecticides (e.g. indoor residual spraying ) may actually impact malaria transmission more through their effect on adult longevity than through their effect on the population of adult mosquitoes. Most Anopheles are crepuscular (active at dusk or dawn) or nocturnal (active at night). Some feed indoors (endophagic), while others feed outdoors (exophagic). After feeding, some blood mosquitoes prefer to rest indoors (endophilic), while others prefer to rest outdoors (exophilic). Biting by nocturnal, endophagic Anopheles can be markedly reduced through
10283-464: The slave trade became the basis of the local economy in Angola. Excursions traveled ever farther inland to procure captives who were sold by African rulers; the primary source of these slaves were those captured as a result of losing a war or interethnic skirmish with other African tribes. More than a million men, women, and children were shipped from Angola across the Atlantic. In this region, unlike Guinea,
10396-754: The so-called inferior races, by cross-breeding, by means of the Christian religion, by the mixing of the most widely divergent elements; freedom of access to the highest offices of state, even in Europe – these are the principles which have always guided Portuguese colonisation in Asia, in Africa, in the Pacific, and previously in America." As late as the 1950s, the policy of "colorblind" access and mixing of races did not extend to all of Portugal's African territories, particularly Mozambique, where in tune with other minority white regimes of
10509-516: The south of Koya in Cape Mount Area. The Biafada is the land above the confluence on the north bank of the Corubal River and the estuary is about 10 km wide at the confluence of the two rivers. The river's discharge has been observed for 18 years (1977-1994) at Saltinho, located some 200 kilometers from the sea. At the Saltinho amont station, the mean annual discharge observed during the period
10622-642: The species and the ambient temperature. The adult stage is when the female Anopheles acts as malaria vector . The adult females can live up to a month (or more in captivity), but most probably do not live more than two weeks in nature. Adult females lay 50–200 eggs per oviposition . The eggs are quite small (about 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in) × 0.2 millimetres (0.008 in)). Eggs are laid singly and directly on water. They are unique in that they have floats on either side. Eggs are not resistant to drying and hatch within 2–3 days, although hatching may take up to 2–3 weeks in colder climates. The mosquito larva has
10735-403: The surface of the water. The adult mosquito hatches from the surface and feeds on the nectar of flowers; the female mosquito also feeds on blood, which animal diet allows them to carry and transmit parasites between hosts. The adult's feeding position is head-down, unlike the horizontal stance of the culicines. Anopheles are distributed almost worldwide, throughout the tropics, the subtropics, and
10848-568: The taxonomy published by Harbach and Kitching in 2016, it was shown that three species of Bironella ( B. confusa , B. gracilis , and B. hollandi ) are phylogenetically more similar to A. kyondawensis than other Bironella species. That phylogeny argues that, based on genetic similarity, A. implexus is divergent from the common ancestor of Anopheles . Like all mosquitoes, anophelines go through four stages in their life cycles: egg , larva , pupa , and adult . The first three stages are aquatic and together last 5–14 days, depending on
10961-535: The technical committee with legal guidance for better implementing its activities." It rises near Labe in the Fouta Djallon highlands of Guinea and flows generally in an east–west direction. The Bentala River is an upper tributary. It enters Guinea-Bissau on its eastern border, then meanders generally southwest, nearing the Guinea-Bissauan border, then turns northwest, passes by Xitole , then empties into
11074-744: The temperate regions of planet Earth. In hot weather, adult Anopheles aestivate , which is a state of dormancy that enables the mosquito to survive in hot dry regions, such as the Sahel . Fossils of the genus Anopheles are rare; only two had been found by 2015. They are Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dominicanus Zavortink & Poinar in Dominican Republic amber from the Late Eocene ( 40.4 million years ago to 33.9 million years ago ), and Anopheles rottensis Statz in German amber from
11187-401: The temperature, but usually takes 2–3 days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host-seeking. The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than one to two weeks in nature. Their lifespans depend on temperature, humidity, and their ability to successfully obtain
11300-413: The time, Portugal was in effective control of little more than the coastal strip of both Angola and Mozambique, but important inroads into the interior had been made since the first half of the 19th century. In Angola, construction of a railway from Luanda to Malanje , in the fertile highlands, was started in 1885. Work began in 1903 on a commercially significant line from Benguela all the way inland to
11413-1017: The total basin area of the Corubal River of 24000 km with 17500 km (72.71%) in Guinea and the balance 27.02% in Guinea Bissau. OMVG have studied four sites for development as hydro-electric power projects. The projects are, the Sambangalou on the River Gambia, the Fello Sounga and Saltinho Projects on the River Koliba/Corubal, and the Gaoual Project on the River Géba. However, the general agreement does not have any relevant substantive and procedural rules governing cooperation between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau. Hence it has been suggested that recourse should be taken to "The United Nations Convention on
11526-602: The trade remained largely in Portuguese hands. Nearly all the slaves were destined for the Portuguese colony of Brazil . In Mozambique , reached in the 15th century by Portuguese sailors searching for a maritime spice trade route, the Portuguese settled along the coast and made their way into the hinterland as sertanejos (backwoodsmen). These sertanejos lived alongside Swahili traders and even obtained employment among Shona kings as interpreters and political advisers. One such sertanejo managed to travel through almost all
11639-556: The upper end of the Geba estuary, about 50 kilometres (31 mi) upstream from the city of Bissau . For a short distance, it forms the international border between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau. It flows between the southern border of Bafatá and the regions of Quinará and Tombali . It is navigable in its reach right up to Bafatá town. Navigation of the Corubal and Geba Rivers also acted as Biofada ’s Mandavan caravan routes to carry salt and kola harvest for barter trading for gold, right up to
11752-423: The use of insecticide -treated bed nets or through improved housing construction to prevent mosquito entry (e.g. window screens ). Endophilic mosquitoes are readily controlled by indoor spraying of residual insecticides. In contrast, exophagic/exophilic vectors are best controlled by destroying breeding sites, such as by filling in ponds. Because transmission of disease by the mosquito requires ingestion of blood,
11865-420: The vector of the dangerous Plasmodium falciparum parasite, ranged from 0.77 to 0.84, meaning that after one day, between 77% and 84% have survived. Assuming this survivorship is constant through the adult life of a mosquito, less than 10% of female A. gambiae would survive longer than a 14-day extrinsic incubation period. If daily survivorship increased to 0.9, over 20% of mosquitoes would survive longer than
11978-500: The west coast of Africa in the 15th century, they concentrated their energies on Guinea and Angola . Hoping at first for gold , they soon found that slaves were the most valuable commodity available in the region for export. The Islamic Empire was already well-established in the African slave trade , for centuries linking it to the Arab slave trade . However, the Portuguese who had conquered
12091-720: The world's history although most of the migrants fled the former Portuguese territories as destitute refugees. The former colonies faced severe problems after independence. Devastating civil wars followed in Angola and Mozambique , which lasted several decades, claimed millions of lives, and resulted in large numbers of displaced refugees . Angola and Mozambique established state-planned economies after independence, and struggled with inefficient judicial systems and bureaucracies, corruption, poverty and unemployment. A level of social order and economic development comparable to what had existed under Portuguese rule, including during
12204-456: Was 304 m3/s for a catchment area covering 23,840 km2, over 90% of the entire watershed of the river. The depth of runoff reached 404 mm/yr, which can be considered high. The Rio Corubal has a high but very irregular discharge. The mean monthly discharge observed in May (minimum) is only 8 m3/s, more than 140 times less than the mean for September, when discharge is at its highest. Seasonal variation
12317-849: Was expected to spill over the borders into its territories. After Germany declared war on Portugal in March 1916, the Portuguese government sent more reinforcements to Mozambique (the South Africans had captured German South West Africa in 1915). These troops supported British , South African and Belgian military operations against German colonial forces in German East Africa . In December 1917, German colonial forces led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck invaded Mozambique from German East Africa. Portuguese, British and Belgian forces spent all of 1918 chasing Lettow-Vorbeck and his men across Mozambique, German East Africa and Northern Rhodesia . Portugal sent
12430-478: Was fond of restating the old Portuguese policy maxim that any indigenous resident of Portugal's African territories was, in theory, eligible to become a member of Portuguese government, even its president. In practice, this never took place, though trained black Africans living in Portugal's overseas African possessions were allowed to occupy positions in a variety of areas including the military, civil service, clergy, education, and private business —providing they had
12543-788: Was increased to four years in 1967, and virtually all conscripts faced a mandatory two-year tour of service in Africa. The existence of the draft and likelihood of combat in African counterinsurgency operations over time resulted in a sharp increase in emigration by Portuguese men seeking to avoid such service. By the end of the Portuguese colonial war in 1974, black African participation had become crucial due to declining numbers of recruits available from Portugal itself. Native African troops, although widely deployed, were initially used in subordinate roles as enlisted troops or noncommissioned officers. Portuguese colonial administrators were handicapped by their policies in education, which largely barred indigenous Africans from adequate education until well after
12656-472: Was introduced by the German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen in 1818. He described two species, A. birfurcatus and the type species , Anopheles maculipennis . He stated that the name meant beschwerlich , "burdensome". The name comes from the Ancient Greek word ἀνωφελής anōphelḗs 'useless', derived from ἀν- an- , 'not', 'un-' and ὄφελος óphelos 'profit'. The taxonomy of
12769-535: Was verified later, a lack of coordination between the three general staffs ( Army , Air Force , and Navy ). The FNLA , which was headed by Holden Roberto , attacked Portuguese settlers and Africans living in northern Angola from its bases in Congo-Léopoldville . Many of the victims were African farm workers living under labor contracts that required seasonal relocation from the desertified Southwest and Bailundo areas of Angola. Photos of Africans killed by
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