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121-660: The Corpus mensurabilis musicae (CMM) is a collected print edition of most of the sacred and secular vocal music of the late medieval and Renaissance period in western music history, with an emphasis on the central Franco-Flemish and Italian repertories. CMM is a publication of the American Institute of Musicology , and consists of 109 series (individual volumes or sets of volumes) as of 2007. Renowned composers whose works have appeared in other collected editions, such as Josquin des Prez , Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina , and Orlande de Lassus , are generally excluded from

242-465: A brief explanation of the mensural notation in general, see the article Renaissance music ). Many scholars, citing a lack of positive attributory evidence, now consider "Vitry's" treatise to be anonymous, but this does not diminish its importance for the history of rhythmic notation. However, this makes the first definitely identifiable scholar to accept and explain the mensural system to be de Muris, who can be said to have done for it what Garlandia did for

363-566: A broad spectrum. The Mishnah lists concentric circles of holiness surrounding the Temple in Jerusalem : Holy of Holies , Temple Sanctuary, Temple Vestibule, Court of Priests, Court of Israelites, Court of Women, Temple Mount , the walled city of Jerusalem , all the walled cities of Israel, and the borders of the Land of Israel . Distinctions are made as to who and what are permitted in each area. Likewise,

484-453: A chant melody by creating one or more accompanying lines. The accompanying line could be as simple as a second line sung in parallel intervals to the original chant (often a perfect fifth or perfect fourth away from the main melody). The principles of this kind of organum date back at least to an anonymous 9th century tract, the Musica enchiriadis , which describes the tradition of duplicating

605-416: A chant text with neume markings would be able to get a general sense of whether the melody line went up in pitch, stayed the same, or went down in pitch. Since trained singers knew the chant repertoire well, written neume markings above the text served as a reminder of the melody but did not specify the actual intervals. However, a singer reading a chant text with neume markings would not be able to sight read

726-745: A compiler; Alfonso is known to regularly invited musicians and poets to court whom were undoubtedly involved in the Cantigas production. It is one of the largest collections of monophonic (solo) songs from the Middle Ages and is characterized by the mention of the Virgin Mary in every song, while every tenth song is a hymn. The manuscripts have survived in four codices: two at El Escorial , one at Madrid 's National Library , and one in Florence , Italy. Some have colored miniatures showing pairs of musicians playing

847-617: A connotation of oneness and transparency like in the Jewish marriage example, where husband and wife are seen as one in keeping with Genesis 2:24. Kodesh is also commonly translated as 'holiness' and 'sacredness'. The Torah describes the Aaronite priests and the Levites as being selected by God to perform the Temple services; they, as well, are called "holy." Holiness is not a single state, but contains

968-453: A letter C as an abbreviation for "common time", as popularly believed). While many of these innovations are ascribed to Vitry, and somewhat present in the Ars Nova treatise, it was a contemporary—and personal acquaintance—of de Vitry, named Johannes de Muris (or Jehan des Mars ) who offered the most comprehensive and systematic treatment of the new mensural innovations of the Ars Nova (for

1089-399: A lower note and, as the name suggests, reduced the gravis symbol to a point. Thus the acutus and the gravis could be combined to represent graphical vocal inflections on the syllable. This kind of notation seems to have developed no earlier than the eighth century, but by the ninth it was firmly established as the primary method of musical notation. The basic notation of the virga and

1210-430: A memory aid for a singer who already knew the melody. This basic neumatic notation could only specify the number of notes and whether they moved up or down. There was no way to indicate exact pitch, any rhythm, or even the starting note. These limitations are further indication that the neumes were developed as tools to support the practice of oral tradition, rather than to supplant it. However, even though it started as

1331-406: A mere memory aid, the worth of having more specific notation soon became evident. The next development in musical notation was "heighted neumes ", in which neumes were carefully placed at different heights in relation to each other. This allowed the neumes to give a rough indication of the size of a given interval as well as the direction. This quickly led to one or two lines, each representing

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1452-488: A particular note, being placed on the music with all of the neumes relating to the earlier ones. At first, these lines had no particular meaning and instead had a letter placed at the beginning indicating which note was represented. However, the lines indicating middle C and the F a fifth below slowly became most common. Having been at first merely scratched on the parchment, the lines now were drawn in two different colored inks: usually red for F, and yellow or green for C. This

1573-462: A precursor to the modern trombone (called the sackbut ) were used. During the medieval period the foundation was laid for the notational and theoretical practices that would shape Western music into the norms that developed during the common practice era . The most obvious of these is the development of a comprehensive music notational system; however the theoretical advances, particularly in regard to rhythm and polyphony, are equally important to

1694-448: A preexisting liturgical chant line in the original Latin, while the text of the one, two, or even three voices above, called the voces organales , provided commentary on the liturgical subject either in Latin or in the vernacular French. The rhythmic values of the voces organales decreased as the parts multiplied, with the duplum (the part above the tenor) having smaller rhythmic values than

1815-515: A preexisting plainchant in parallel motion at the interval of an octave, a fifth or a fourth. Some of the earliest written examples are in a style known as Aquitanian polyphony , but the largest body of surviving organum comes from the Notre-Dame school . This loose collection of repertory is often called the Magnus Liber Organi ( Great Book of Organum ). Related polyphonic genres included

1936-430: A procession of some sort; and tropes , which were additions of new words and sometimes new music to sections of older chant. All of these genres save one were based upon chant; that is, one of the voices, (usually three, though sometimes four) nearly always the lowest (the tenor at this point) sang a chant melody, though with freely composed note-lengths, over which the other voices sang organum. The exception to this method

2057-410: A similar fashion, the semibreve's division (termed prolation ) could be divided into three minima ( prolatio perfectus or major prolation) or two minima ( prolatio imperfectus or minor prolation) and, at the higher level, the longs division (called modus ) could be three or two breves ( modus perfectus or perfect mode, or modus imperfectus or imperfect mode respectively). Vitry took this

2178-582: A singer to learn pieces completely unknown to him in a much shorter amount of time. However, even though chant notation had progressed in many ways, one fundamental problem remained: rhythm. The neumatic notational system, even in its fully developed state, did not clearly define any kind of rhythm for the singing of notes. The music theory of the medieval period saw several advances over previous practice both in regard to tonal material, texture, and rhythm. Concerning rhythm , this period had several dramatic changes in both its conception and notation. During

2299-409: A song which he or she had never heard sung before; these pieces would not be possible to interpret accurately today without later versions in more precise notation systems. These neumes eventually evolved into the basic symbols for neumatic notation, the virga (or "rod") which indicates a higher note and still looked like the acutus from which it came; and the punctum (or "dot") which indicates

2420-417: A step further by indicating the proper division of a given piece at the beginning through the use of a "mensuration sign", equivalent to our modern "time signature". Tempus perfectum was indicated by a circle, while tempus imperfectum was denoted by a half-circle (the current symbol [REDACTED] , used as an alternative for the 4 time signature, is actually a holdover of this symbol, not

2541-628: A term, is mostly misinterpreted as the idea of sanctification in Islam and it is used to pray about saints , especially among Sufis, in whom it is common to say "that God sanctifies his secret" ("qaddasa Llahou Sirruhu"), and that the Saint is alive or dead. Images of the Buddha and bodhisattvas are ceremonially consecrated in a broad range of Buddhist rituals that vary depending on the Buddhist traditions. Buddhābhiseka

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2662-415: A voice in parallel motion , singing mostly in perfect fourths or fifths above the original tune (see interval ). This development is called organum and represents the beginnings of counterpoint and, ultimately, harmony . Over the next several centuries, organum developed in several ways. The most significant of these developments was the creation of "florid organum" around 1100, sometimes known as

2783-414: A wide variety of instruments . The music of the troubadours and trouvères was a vernacular tradition of monophonic secular song, probably accompanied by instruments, sung by professional, occasionally itinerant, musicians who were as skilled as poets as they were singers and instrumentalists. The language of the troubadours was Occitan (also known as the langue d'oc , or Provençal); the language of

2904-624: A wide variety of interpretations on sacredness. The Anglican , Catholic , Lutheran , and Methodist Churches, believe in Holy Sacraments that the clergy perform, such as Holy Communion and Holy Baptism , as well as strong belief in the Holy Catholic Church , Holy Scripture , Holy Trinity , and the Holy Covenant . They also believe that angels and saints are called to holiness . In Methodist Wesleyan theology holiness has acquired

3025-588: Is a Pali and Sanskrit term referring to these consecration rituals. Mormonism is replete with consecration doctrine, primarily Christ's title of "The Anointed One" signifying his official, authorized and unique role as the savior of mankind from sin and death, and secondarily each individual's opportunity and ultimate responsibility to accept Jesus' will for their life and consecrate themselves to living thereby wholeheartedly. Book of Mormon examples include "sanctification cometh because of their yielding their hearts unto God" (Heleman 3:35) and "come unto Christ, who

3146-597: Is a monophonic sacred (single, unaccompanied melody) form which represents the earliest known music of the Christian church. Chant developed separately in several European centres. Although the most important were Rome , Hispania , Gaul , Milan, and Ireland, there were others as well. These styles were all developed to support the regional liturgies used when celebrating the Mass there. Each area developed its own chant and rules for celebration. In Spain and Portugal , Mozarabic chant

3267-607: Is a phenomenon found in several religions, especially religions which have eco-friendly belief as core of their religion. For example, the Indian-origin religions ( Buddhism , Hinduism , Jainism , and Sikism ) revere and preserve the groves , trees , mountains and rivers as sacred. Among the most sacred rivers in Hinduism are the Ganges , Yamuna , Sarasvati rivers on which the rigvedic rivers flourished. The vedas and Gita ,

3388-426: Is allowed) and start on the final, whereas the plagal modes, while still covering about an octave, start a perfect fourth below the authentic. Another interesting aspect of the modal system is the use of " Musica ficta " which allows pitches to be altered (changing B ♮ to B ♭ for example) in certain contexts regardless of the mode. These changes have several uses, but one that seems particularly common

3509-418: Is based on chains of ligature s (the characteristic notations by which groups of notes are bound to one another). The rhythmic mode can generally be determined by the patterns of ligatures used. Once a rhythmic mode had been assigned to a melodic line, there was generally little deviation from that mode, although rhythmic adjustments could be indicated by changes in the expected pattern of ligatures, even to

3630-444: Is based on the Jewish concept of God, whose holiness is pure goodness and is transmissible by sanctifying people and things. In Islam , sanctification is termed as tazkiah , other similarly used words to the term are Islah -i qalb (reform of the heart), Ihsan (beautification), taharat (purification), Ikhlas (purity), qalb -is- salim (pure/safe/undamaged heart). Tasawuf (Sufism), basically an ideology rather than

3751-495: Is better understood as 'sacred' or 'sanctuary' in the context of places considered sacred in Islam. For example: The Hebrew word kodesh ( קֹדֶשׁ ) is used in the Torah to mean 'set-apartness' and 'distinct' like is found in the Jewish marriage ceremony where it is stated by the husband to his prospective wife, "You are made holy to me according to the law of Moses and Israel." ( את מקדשת לי כדת משה וישראל ). In Hebrew, holiness has

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3872-528: Is communicated to things, places, times, and persons engaged in His Service. Thus, Thomas Aquinas defines holiness as that virtue by which a man's mind applies itself and all its acts to God; he ranks it among the infused moral virtues , and identifies it with the virtue of religion. However, whereas religion is the virtue whereby one offers God due service in the things which pertain to the Divine service, holiness

3993-419: Is considered among the gravest of sins. The various sacrifices are holy. Those that may be eaten have very specific rules concerning who may eat which of their parts, and time limits on when the consumption must be completed. Most sacrifices contain a part to be consumed by the priests—a portion of the holy to be consumed by God's holy devotees. The encounter with the holy is seen as eminently desirable, and at

4114-399: Is credited with the innovation of writing more than three semibreves to fit the length of a breve. Coming before the innovation of imperfect tempus, this practice inaugurated the era of what are now called "Petronian" motets. These late 13th-century works are in three to four parts and have multiple texts sung simultaneously. Originally, the tenor line (from the Latin tenere , "to hold") held

4235-457: Is generally held when a new Jain temple is erected or new idols are installed in temples. The consecration must be supervised by a religious authority, an Acharya or a Bhattaraka or a scholar authorized by them. Hierology ( Greek : ιερος, hieros , 'sacred or 'holy', + -logy ) is the study of sacred literature or lore . The concept and the term were developed in 2002 by Russian art-historian and byzantinist Alexei Lidov . Analysing

4356-642: Is generally used in relation to people and relationships, whereas sacredness is used in relation to objects, places, or happenings. For example, a saint may be considered as holy but not necessarily sacred. Nonetheless, some things can be both holy and sacred, such as the Holy Bible . Although sacred and holy denote something or someone set apart to the worship of God and therefore, worthy of respect and sometimes veneration, holy (the stronger word) implies an inherent or essential character. Holiness originates in God and

4477-672: Is possible, nevertheless, that Gregory's papacy really may have contributed to collecting and codifying the Roman chant of the time which then, in the 9th and 10th centuries, formed – alongside the Gallican chant – one of the two roots of the Gregorian chant. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had superseded all the other Western chant traditions, with the exception of the Ambrosian chant in Milan and

4598-506: Is the Holy One of Israel, and partake of his salvation, and the power of his redemption, ... and offer your whole souls as an offering unto him, and continue in fasting and praying, and endure to the end; and as the Lord liveth ye will be saved" (Omni 1:26). In most South Indian Hindu temples around the world, Kumbhabhishekam , or the temple's consecration ceremony, is done once every 12 years. It

4719-537: Is the virtue by which one makes all one's acts subservient to God. Thus, holiness or sanctity is the outcome of sanctification , that Divine act by which God freely justifies a person and by which He has claimed them for His own. The English word holy dates back to the Proto-Germanic word hailagaz from around 500 BCE , an adjective derived from hailaz ('whole'), which was used to mean 'uninjured, sound, healthy, entire, complete'. In non-specialist contexts,

4840-447: Is to avoid melodic difficulties caused by the tritone. These ecclesiastical modes, although they have Greek names, have little relationship to the modes as set out by Greek theorists. Rather, most of the terminology seems to be a misappropriation on the part of the medieval theorists Although the church modes have no relation to the ancient Greek modes, the overabundance of Greek terminology does point to an interesting possible origin in

4961-419: Is unclear and subject to some debate; however, most scholars agree that their closest ancestors are the classic Greek and Roman grammatical signs that indicated important points of declamation by recording the rise and fall of the voice. The two basic signs of the classical grammarians were the acutus , /, indicating a raising of the voice, and the gravis , \, indicating a lowering of the voice. A singer reading

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5082-496: Is usually done to purify the temple after a renovation or simply done to renew the purity of the temple. Hindus celebrate this event on the consecration date as the witnessing gives a good soul a thousand "punya", or good karma . Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava is a traditional Jain ceremony that consecrates one or more Jain Tirthankara icons with celebration of Panch Kalyanaka (five auspicious events). The ceremony

5203-576: The Musica Disciplina (MD), which publishes current scholarly work on early music. Medieval music Medieval music encompasses the sacred and secular music of Western Europe during the Middle Ages , from approximately the 6th to 15th centuries. It is the first and longest major era of Western classical music and is followed by the Renaissance music ; the two eras comprise what musicologists generally term as early music , preceding

5324-479: The Play of Daniel , which has been recently recorded at least ten times). The Goliards were itinerant poet -musicians of Europe from the tenth to the middle of the thirteenth century. Most were scholars or ecclesiastics , and they wrote and sang in Latin. Although many of the poems have survived, very little of the music has. They were possibly influential—even decisively so—on the troubadour - trouvère tradition which

5445-596: The Albigensian Crusade , the fierce campaign by Pope Innocent III to eliminate the Cathar heresy (and northern barons' desire to appropriate the wealth of the south). Surviving troubadours went either to Portugal , Spain, northern Italy or northern France (where the trouvère tradition lived on), where their skills and techniques contributed to the later developments of secular musical culture in those places. The trouvères and troubadours shared similar musical styles, but

5566-402: The Ars Nova period introduced two important changes: the first was an even smaller subdivision of notes (semibreves, could now be divided into minim ), and the second was the development of "mensuration." Mensurations could be combined in various manners to produce metrical groupings. These groupings of mensurations are the precursors of simple and compound meter. By the time of Ars Nova ,

5687-586: The Byzantine Empire was the first recorded European bowed string instrument. Like the modern violin, a performer produced sound by moving a bow with tensioned hair over tensioned strings. The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih of the 9th century ( d.  911 ) cited the Byzantine lyra , in his lexicographical discussion of instruments as a bowed instrument equivalent to the Arab rabāb and typical instrument of

5808-574: The Jewish holidays and the Shabbat are considered to be holy in time; the Torah calls them "holy [days of] gathering." Work is not allowed on those days, and rabbinic tradition lists 39 categories of activity that are specifically prohibited. Beyond the intrinsically holy, objects can become sacred through consecration . Any personal possession may be dedicated to the Temple of God, after which its misappropriation

5929-677: The Latin Sanctus (to set apart for special use or purpose, make holy or sacred) and consecrat (dedicated, devoted, and sacred). The verb form 'to hallow' is archaic in English, and does not appear other than in the quoted text in the Lord's Prayer in the New Testament. The noun form hallow , as used in Hallowtide , is a synonym of the word saint . In the various branches of Christianity

6050-527: The common practice period . Following the traditional division of the Middle Ages, medieval music can be divided into Early (500–1000) , High (1000–1300) , and Late (1300–1400) medieval music. Medieval music includes liturgical music used for the church, other sacred music, and secular or non-religious music. Much medieval music is purely vocal music, such as Gregorian chant . Other music used only instruments or both voices and instruments (typically with

6171-403: The dialectic of the sacred, Mircea Eliade outlines that religion should not be interpreted only as "belief in deities", but as "experience of the sacred." The sacred is presented in relation to the profane; the relation between the sacred and the profane is not of opposition, but of complementarity, as the profane is viewed as a hierophany . French sociologist Émile Durkheim considered

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6292-400: The dichotomy between the sacred and the profane to be the central characteristic of religion : "religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things , that is to say, things set apart and forbidden." In Durkheim's theory, the sacred represented the interests of the group, especially unity, which were embodied in sacred group symbols, or totems . The profane, on

6413-432: The dichotomy between the sacred and the profane to be the central characteristic of religion : "religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things , that is to say, things set apart and forbidden." In Durkheim's theory, the sacred represents the interests of the group, especially unity, which are embodied in sacred group symbols, or using team work to help get out of trouble. The profane, on

6534-592: The earlier medieval period , liturgical music was monophonic chant; Gregorian chant became the dominant style. Polyphonic genres, in which multiple independent melodic lines are performed simultaneously, began to develop during the high medieval era , becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century. The development of polyphonic forms is often associated with the Ars antiqua style associated with Notre-Dame de Paris , but improvised polyphony around chant lines predated this. Organum , for example, elaborated on

6655-475: The lute , a fretted instrument with a pear-shaped hollow body which is the predecessor to the modern guitar. Other plucked stringed instruments included the mandore , gittern , citole and psaltery . The dulcimers , similar in structure to the psaltery and zither , were originally plucked, but musicians began to strike the dulcimer with hammers in the 14th century after the arrival of new metal technology that made metal strings possible. The bowed lyra of

6776-501: The motet and clausula genres, both also often built on an original segment of plainchant or as an elaboration on an organum passage. While most early motets were sacred and may have been liturgical (designed for use in a church service), by the end of the thirteenth century the genre had expanded to include secular topics, such as political satire and courtly love , and French as well as Latin texts. They also included from one to three upper voices, each with its own text. In Italy,

6897-443: The punctum remained the symbols for individual notes, but other neumes soon developed which showed several notes joined. These new neumes —called ligatures—are essentially combinations of the two original signs. The first music notation was the use of dots over the lyrics to a chant, with some dots being higher or lower, giving the reader a general sense of the direction of the melody. However, this form of notation only served as

7018-413: The school of St. Martial (named after a monastery in south-central France, which contains the best-preserved manuscript of this repertory). In "florid organum" the original tune would be sung in long notes while an accompanying voice would sing many notes to each one of the original, often in a highly elaborate fashion, all the while emphasizing the perfect consonances (fourths, fifths and octaves), as in

7139-425: The tempus or beat was also inherently perfect and therefore contained three semibreves. Sometimes the context of the mode would require a group of only two semibreves, however, these two semibreves would always be one of normal length and one of double length, thereby taking the same space of time, and thus preserving the perfect subdivision of the tempus . This ternary division held for all note values. In contrast,

7260-502: The 20th century. Of equal importance to the overall history of western music theory were the textural changes that came with the advent of polyphony. This practice shaped western music into the harmonically dominated music that we know today. The first accounts of this textural development were found in two anonymous yet widely circulated treatises on music, the Musica and the Scolica enchiriadis . These texts are dated to sometime within

7381-512: The British Isles during the mid-19th century. Commonly recognized outward expressions or "standards" of holiness among more fundamental adherents frequently include applications relative to dress, hair, and appearance: e.g., short hair on men, uncut hair on women, and prohibitions against shorts, pants on women, make-up and jewelry. Other common injunctions are against places of worldly amusement, mixed swimming, smoking, minced oaths , as well as

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7502-459: The Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre ) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe ). The hurdy-gurdy was (and still is) a mechanical violin using a rosined wooden wheel attached to a crank to "bow" its strings. Instruments without sound boxes like the jew's harp were also popular. Early versions of the pipe organ , fiddle (or vielle ), and

7623-629: The Empire to teach this new form of chant. This body of chant became known as Gregorian Chant , named after Pope Gregory I . Gregorian chant was said to be collected and codified during his papacy or even composed by himself, inspired by the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove. However, that is only a popular legend that was spread by the Carolingians who wanted to legitimize their liturgy unification efforts. Gregorian chant certainly didn't exist at that time. It

7744-460: The Greek ordinal numbers. Those modes that have d, e, f, and g as their final are put into the groups protus , deuterus , tritus , and tetrardus respectively. These can then be divided further based on whether the mode is "authentic" or "plagal." These distinctions deal with the range of the mode in relation to the final. The authentic modes have a range that is about an octave (one tone above or below

7865-571: The Mozarabic chant in a few specially designated Spanish chapels. Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179) was one of the earliest known female composers. She wrote many monophonic works for the Catholic Church, almost all of them for female voices. Around the end of the 9th century, singers in monasteries such as St. Gall in Switzerland began experimenting with adding another part to the chant, generally

7986-442: The author of the treatises. Organum can further be classified depending on the time period in which it was written. The early organum as described in the enchiriadis can be termed "strict organum " Strict organum can, in turn, be subdivided into two types: diapente (organum at the interval of a fifth) and diatesseron (organum at the interval of a fourth). However, both of these kinds of strict organum had problems with

8107-451: The cathedral) Léonin 's lengthy florid clausulae with substitutes in a discant style. Gradually, there came to be entire books of these substitutes, available to be fitted in and out of the various chants. Since, in fact, there were more than can possibly have been used in context, it is probable that the clausulae came to be performed independently, either in other parts of the mass, or in private devotions. The clausula, thus practised, became

8228-457: The centre of activity was at the cathedral of Notre Dame itself. Sometimes the music of this period is called the Parisian school, or Parisian organum, and represents the beginning of what is conventionally known as Ars antiqua . This was the period in which rhythmic notation first appeared in western music, mainly a context-based method of rhythmic notation known as the rhythmic modes . This

8349-497: The designation of ariya-puggala ('noble person'). Buddha described the Four stages of awakening of a person depending on their level of purity. This purity is measured by which of the ten samyojana ('fetters') and klesha have been purified and integrated from the mindstream . These persons are called (in order of increasing sanctity) Sotāpanna , Sakadagami , Anāgāmi , and Arahant . The range of denominations provide

8470-633: The details differ. Sanctification in Christianity usually refers to a person becoming holy, while consecration in Christianity may include setting apart a person, building , or object, for God. Among some Christian denominations there is a complementary service of " deconsecration ", to remove something consecrated of its sacred character in preparation for either demolition or sale for secular use. In rabbinic Judaism sanctification means sanctifying God's name by works of mercy and martyrdom , while desecration of God's name means committing sin . This

8591-411: The development of Western music. The earliest medieval music did not have any kind of notational system. The tunes were primarily monophonic (a single melody without accompaniment ) and transmitted by oral tradition. As Rome tried to centralize the various liturgies and establish the Roman rite as the primary church tradition the need to transmit these chant melodies across vast distances effectively

8712-495: The dreaded tritone. The final style of organum that developed was known as " melismatic organum ", which was a rather dramatic departure from the rest of the polyphonic music up to this point. This new style was not note against note, but was rather one sustained line accompanied by a florid melismatic line. This final kind of organum was also incorporated by the most famous polyphonic composer of this time— Léonin . He united this style with measured discant passages, which used

8833-499: The earlier organa. Later developments of organum occurred in England, where the interval of the third was particularly favoured, and where organa were likely improvised against an existing chant melody, and at Notre Dame in Paris, which was to be the centre of musical creative activity throughout the thirteenth century. Much of the music from the early medieval period is anonymous . Some of

8954-470: The early medieval period there was no method to notate rhythm, and thus the rhythmical practice of this early music is subject to debate among scholars. The first kind of written rhythmic system developed during the 13th century and was based on a series of modes. This rhythmic plan was codified by the music theorist Johannes de Garlandia , author of the De Mensurabili Musica ( c.  1250 ),

9075-409: The early medieval period, see Pope Gregory I , St. Godric , Hildegard of Bingen , Hucbald , Notker Balbulus , Odo of Arezzo , Odo of Cluny , and Tutilo . Another musical tradition of Europe originating during the early Middle Ages was the liturgical drama . Liturgical drama developed possibly in the 10th century from the tropes—poetic embellishments of the liturgical texts. One of the tropes,

9196-694: The eschewing of television and radio. Among the names of God in the Quran is Al-Quddus ( القدوس ): found in Q59:23 and 62:1 , the closest English translation is 'holy' or 'sacred'. (It shares the same triliteral Semitic root , Q-D-Š , as the Hebrew kodesh .) Another use of the same root is found in the Arabic name for Jerusalem: al-Quds , 'the Holy'. The word ħarām ( حرام ), often translated as 'prohibited' or 'forbidden',

9317-495: The evolution of rhythm came after the turn of the 13th century with the development of the Ars Nova style. The theorist who is most well recognized in regard to this new style is Philippe de Vitry , famous for writing the Ars Nova ("New Art") treatise around 1320. This treatise on music gave its name to the style of this entire era. In some ways the modern system of rhythmic notation began with Vitry, who completely broke free from

9438-478: The extent of changing to another rhythmic mode. The next step forward concerning rhythm came from the German theorist Franco of Cologne . In his treatise Ars cantus mensurabilis ("The Art of Mensurable Music"), written around 1280, he describes a system of notation in which differently shaped notes have entirely different rhythmic values. This is a striking change from the earlier system of de Garlandia. Whereas before

9559-550: The fact that in the 21st century it may be made of synthetic materials such as plastic, it has more or less retained its past form. The gemshorn is similar to the recorder as it has finger holes on its front, though it is actually a member of the ocarina family. One of the flute's predecessors, the pan flute , was popular in medieval times, and is possibly of Hellenic origin. This instrument's pipes were made of wood, and were graduated in length to produce different pitches. Medieval music used many plucked string instruments like

9680-454: The highly syncopated works of the Ars subtilior at the end of the 14th century, characterized by extremes of notational and rhythmic complexity. This sub-genera pushed the rhythmic freedom provided by Ars Nova to its limits, with some compositions having different voices written in different mensurations simultaneously. The rhythmic complexity that was realized in this music is comparable to that in

9801-403: The information concerning these modes, as well as the practical application of them, was codified in the 11th century by the theorist Johannes Afflighemensis . In his work he describes three defining elements to each mode: the final (or finalis) , the reciting tone ( tenor or confinalis ), and the range (or ambitus ). The finalis is the tone that serves as the focal point for the mode and, as

9922-417: The instrumental accompaniment of such plays, given that the stage directions, very elaborate and precise in other respects, do not request any participation of instruments. These dramas were performed by monks, nuns and priests. In contrast to secular plays, which were spoken, the liturgical drama was always sung. Many have been preserved sufficiently to allow modern reconstruction and performance (for example

10043-534: The instruments accompanying the voices). The medieval period saw the creation and adaptation of systems of music notation which enabled creators to document and transmit musical ideas more easily, although notation coexisted with and complemented oral tradition . Medieval music was created for a number of different uses and contexts, resulting in different music genres . Liturgical as well as more general sacred contexts were important, but secular types emerged as well, including love songs and dances. During

10164-400: The last half of the ninth century. The treatises describe a technique that seemed already to be well established in practice. This early polyphony is based on three simple and three compound intervals. The first group comprises fourths, fifths, and octaves; while the second group has octave-plus-fourths, octave-plus-fifths, and double octaves. This new practice is given the name organum by

10285-440: The length of the individual note could only be gathered from the mode itself, this new inverted relationship made the mode dependent upon—and determined by—the individual notes or figurae that have incontrovertible durational values, an innovation which had a massive impact on the subsequent history of European music. Most of the surviving notated music of the 13th century uses the rhythmic modes as defined by Garlandia. The step in

10406-630: The liturgical melodies of the Byzantine tradition. This system is called octoechos and is also divided into eight categories, called echoi . For specific medieval music theorists, see also: Isidore of Seville , Aurelian of Réôme , Odo of Cluny , Guido of Arezzo , Hermannus Contractus , Johannes Cotto (Johannes Afflighemensis), Johannes de Muris , Franco of Cologne , Johannes de Garlandia (Johannes Gallicus), Anonymous IV , Marchetto da Padova (Marchettus of Padua), Jacques of Liège , Johannes de Grocheo , Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix), and Philippe de Vitry . Chant (or plainsong )

10527-624: The most sacred of hindu texts were written on the banks of Sarasvati river which were codified during the Kuru kingdom in present-day Haryana . Among other secondary sacred rivers of Hinduism are Narmada and many more. Among the sacred mountains, the most sacred among those are Mount Kailash (in Tibet), Nanda Devi , Char Dham mountains and Amarnath mountain, Gangotri mountain. Yamunotri mountain, Sarasvotri mountain (origin of Sarasvati River ), Dhosi Hill , etc. In Theravada Buddhism one finds

10648-504: The motet when troped with non-liturgical words, and this further developed into a form of great elaboration, sophistication and subtlety in the fourteenth century, the period of Ars nova . Surviving manuscripts from this era include the Montpellier Codex , Bamberg Codex , and Las Huelgas Codex . Composers of this time include Léonin , Pérotin , W. de Wycombe , Adam de St. Victor , and Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix). Petrus

10769-458: The musical rules of the time. If either of them paralleled an original chant for too long (depending on the mode) a tritone would result. This problem was somewhat overcome with the use of a second type of organum . This second style of organum was called "free organum ". Its distinguishing factor is that the parts did not have to move only in parallel motion, but could also move in oblique, or contrary motion. This made it much easier to avoid

10890-484: The name suggests, is almost always used as the final tone. The reciting tone is the tone that serves as the primary focal point in the melody (particularly internally). It is generally also the tone most often repeated in the piece, and finally the range delimits the upper and lower tones for a given mode. The eight modes can be further divided into four categories based on their final ( finalis ). Medieval theorists called these pairs maneriae and labeled them according to

11011-610: The names may have been poets and lyric writers, and the tunes for which they wrote words may have been composed by others. Attribution of monophonic music of the medieval period is not always reliable. Surviving manuscripts from this period include the Musica Enchiriadis , Codex Calixtinus of Santiago de Compostela , the Magnus Liber , and the Winchester Troper . For information about specific composers or poets writing during

11132-405: The older idea of the rhythmic modes. The notational predecessors of modern time meters also originate in the Ars Nova . This new style was clearly built upon the work of Franco of Cologne. In Franco's system, the relationship between a breve and a semibreves (that is, half breves) was equivalent to that between a breve and a long: and, since for him modus was always perfect (grouped in threes),

11253-539: The other hand, involve mundane individual concerns. The word sacred descends from the Latin sacer , referring to that which is ' consecrated , dedicated' or 'purified' to the gods or anything in their power, as well as to sacerdotes . Latin sacer is itself from Proto-Indo-European *seh₂k- "sacred, ceremony, ritual". Although the terms sacred and holy are similar in meaning, and they are sometimes used interchangeably, they carry subtle differences. Holiness

11374-440: The other hand, involved mundane individual concerns. Durkheim explicitly stated that the dichotomy sacred/profane was not equivalent to good/evil . The sacred could be good or evil , and the profane could be either as well. In ancient Roman religion , the concept of sacrosanctity ( Latin : sacrosanctitas ) was extremely important in attempting to protect the tribunes of the plebs from personal harm. The tribunician power

11495-455: The perfect division of the tempus was not the only option as duple divisions became more accepted. For Vitry the breve could be divided, for an entire composition, or section of one, into groups of two or three smaller semibreves. This way, the tempus (the term that came to denote the division of the breve) could be either "perfect" ( tempus perfectum ), with ternary subdivision, or "imperfect" ( tempus imperfectum ), with binary subdivision. In

11616-600: The present day, with the volumes continually being updated and reissued. After Carapetyan's death in 1992, Gilbert Reaney and Frank D'Accone became co-editors; after Reaney's death in 2008 and until his death in 2022 D'Accone was the sole editor. Other related publications of the American Institute of Musicology include the Corpus of Early Keyboard Music (CEKM), the Corpus scriptorum de musica (CSM), containing editions of writings about music by early music theorists, and

11737-421: The reign of Alfonso X The Wise (1221–1284). The manuscript was probably compiled from 1270 to 1280, and is highly decorated, with an illumination every 10 poems. The illuminations often depict musicians making the manuscript a particularly important source of medieval music iconography. Though the Cantigas are often attributed to Alfonso, it remains unclear as to whether he was a composer himself, or perhaps

11858-416: The removal of corpses to graveyards and similarly profane work, the city gates were left exempted from the rite. Indian-origin religion , namely Hinduism and its offshoots Buddhism , Jainism and Sikhism , have concept of revering and conserving ecology and environment by treating various objects as sacred, such as rivers, trees, forests or groves, mountains, etc. Sacred rivers and their reverence

11979-453: The rhythmic modes to create the pinnacle of organum composition. This final stage of organum is sometimes referred to as Notre Dame school of polyphony, since that was where Léonin (and his student Pérotin ) were stationed. Furthermore, this kind of polyphony influenced all subsequent styles, with the later polyphonic genera of motets starting as a trope of existing Notre Dame organums . Another important element of medieval music theory

12100-432: The rhythmic modes. For the duration of the medieval period, most music would be composed primarily in perfect tempus, with special effects created by sections of imperfect tempus; there is a great current controversy among musicologists as to whether such sections were performed with a breve of equal length or whether it changed, and if so, at what proportion. This Ars Nova style remained the primary rhythmical system until

12221-625: The secondary meaning of the reshaping of a person through entire sanctification . The Holiness movement began within the United States Methodist church among those who thought the church had lost the zeal and emphasis on personal holiness of Wesley's day. Around the middle of the 20th century, the Conservative Holiness Movement , a conservative offshoot of the Holiness movement, was born. The Higher Life movement appeared in

12342-520: The secular genre of the Madrigal became popular. Similar to the polyphonic character of the motet, madrigals featured greater fluidity and motion in the leading melody. The madrigal form also gave rise to polyphonic canons (songs in which multiple singers sing the same melody, but starting at different times), especially in Italy where they were called caccie. These were three-part secular pieces, which featured

12463-477: The set. Many of the series are devoted to works of a single composer, and in some cases they are organized into sub-volumes because of their size (for example, "Volume 1" contains the works of Guillaume Dufay ; it actually consists of 6 separate bound volumes, separately containing motets , masses , mass fragments, other liturgical music, and secular songs). Other series contain anthologies and contents of codices and manuscripts, documents which typically compile

12584-593: The so-called Quem Quaeritis, belonging to the liturgy of Easter morning, developed into a short play around the year 950. The oldest surviving written source is the Winchester Troper. Around the year 1000 it was sung widely in Northern Europe. Shortly, a similar Christmas play was developed, musically and textually following the Easter one, and other plays followed. There is a controversy among musicologists as to

12705-802: The tenor, the triplum (the line above the duplum ) having smaller rhythmic values than the duplum , and so on. As time went by, the texts of the voces organales became increasingly secular in nature and had less and less overt connection to the liturgical text in the tenor line. The increasing rhythmic complexity seen in Petronian motets would be a fundamental characteristic of the 14th century, though music in France, Italy, and England would take quite different paths during that time. The Cantigas de Santa Maria ("Canticles of St. Mary") are 420 poems with musical notation, written in Galician-Portuguese during

12826-572: The term holy refers to someone or something that is associated with a divine power , such as water used for baptism . The concept of things being made or associated with the sacred is widespread among religions , making people, places, and objects revered, set apart for special use or purpose, or transferred to the sacred sphere. Words for this include hallow , sanctify , and consecrate , which can be contrasted with desecration and deconsecration . These terms are used in various ways by different groups. Sanctification and consecration come from

12947-408: The treatise which defined and most completely elucidated these rhythmic modes . In his treatise Johannes de Garlandia describes six species of mode, or six different ways in which longs and breves can be arranged. Each mode establishes a rhythmic pattern in beats (or tempora ) within a common unit of three tempora (a perfectio ) that is repeated again and again. Furthermore, notation without text

13068-452: The trouvères was Old French (also known as langue d'oïl ). The period of the troubadours corresponded to the flowering of cultural life in Provence which lasted through the twelfth century and into the first decade of the thirteenth. Typical subjects of troubadour song were war, chivalry and courtly love —the love of an idealized woman from afar. The period of the troubadours wound down after

13189-479: The trouvères were generally noblemen. The music of the trouvères was similar to that of the troubadours, but was able to survive into the thirteenth century unaffected by the Albigensian Crusade. Most of the more than two thousand surviving trouvère songs include music, and show a sophistication as great as that of the poetry it accompanies. Sacredness French sociologist Émile Durkheim considered

13310-492: The two higher voices in canon, with an underlying instrumental long-note accompaniment. In the late middle ages, some purely instrumental music also began to be notated, though this remained rare. Dance music makes up most of the surviving instrumental music, and includes types such as the estampie , ductia , and nota. Many instruments used to perform medieval music still exist in the 21st century, but in different and typically more technologically developed forms. The flute

13431-448: The work of many composers: for example, series 46 has the complete Old Hall Manuscript of music from early 15th-century England, and series 85 has the six anonymous L'homme armé masses from Naples . Most of the editions are prefaced by biographical notes as well as notes on the transcriptions. The work was begun by Armen Carapetyan , who founded the American Institute of Musicology in 1944; work on CMM began in 1947, and continues to

13552-588: Was also the period in which concepts of formal structure developed which were attentive to proportion, texture , and architectural effect. Composers of the period alternated florid and discant organum (more note-against-note, as opposed to the succession of many-note melismas against long-held notes found in the florid type), and created several new musical forms: clausulae , which were melismatic sections of organa extracted and fitted with new words and further musical elaboration; conductus , which were songs for one or more voices to be sung rhythmically, most likely in

13673-470: Was equally glaring. So long as music could only be taught to people "by ear," it limited the ability of the church to get different regions to sing the same melodies, since each new person would have to spend time with a person who already knew a song and learn it "by ear." The first step to fix this problem came with the introduction of various signs written above the chant texts to indicate direction of pitch movement, called neumes . The origin of neumes

13794-459: Was later arrogated to the emperors in large part to provide them with the role's sacred protections. In addition to sanctifying temples and similar sanctuaries, the Romans also undertook the ritual of the sulcus primigenius when founding a new city—particularly formal colonies —in order to make the entire circuit of the town's wall ritually sacred as a further means of protection. In order to allow

13915-406: Was made of wood in the medieval era rather than silver or other metal, and could be made as a side-blown or end-blown instrument. While modern orchestral flutes are usually made of metal and have complex key mechanisms and airtight pads, medieval flutes had holes that the performer had to cover with the fingers (as with the recorder). The recorder was made of wood during the medieval era, and despite

14036-425: Was the beginning of the musical staff. The completion of the four-line staff is usually credited to Guido d'Arezzo ( c.  1000 –1050), one of the most important musical theorists of the Middle Ages. While older sources attribute the development of the staff to Guido, some modern scholars suggest that he acted more as a codifier of a system that was already being developed. Either way, this new notation allowed

14157-464: Was the conductus, a two-voice composition that was freely composed in its entirety. The motet , one of the most important musical forms of the high Middle Ages and Renaissance, developed initially during the Notre Dame period out of the clausula, especially the form using multiple voices as elaborated by Pérotin , who paved the way for this particularly by replacing many of his predecessor (as canon of

14278-494: Was the system by which pitches were arranged and understood. During the Middle Ages, this systematic arrangement of a series of whole steps and half steps, what we now call a scale , was known as a mode . The modal system worked like the scales of today, insomuch that it provided the rules and material for melodic writing. The eight church modes are: Dorian , Hypodorian , Phrygian , Hypophrygian , Lydian , Hypolydian , Mixolydian , and Hypomixolydian . Much of

14399-591: Was to follow. Most of their poetry is secular and, while some of the songs celebrate religious ideals, others are frankly profane, dealing with drunkenness, debauchery and lechery. One of the most important extant sources of Goliards chansons is the Carmina Burana . The flowering of the Notre Dame school of polyphony from around 1150 to 1250 corresponded to the equally impressive achievements in Gothic architecture : indeed

14520-427: Was used and shows the influence of North African music . The Mozarabic liturgy even survived through Muslim rule, though this was an isolated strand and this music was later suppressed in an attempt to enforce conformity on the entire liturgy. In Milan, Ambrosian chant , named after St. Ambrose , was the standard, while Beneventan chant developed around Benevento , another Italian liturgical center. Gallican chant

14641-644: Was used in Gaul, and Celtic chant in Ireland and Great Britain. The reigning Carolingian dynasty wanted to standardize the Mass and chant across its Frankish Empire . At this time, Rome was the religious centre of western Europe, and northern Gaul and Rhineland (most notably the city of Aachen ) was the political centre. The standardization effort consisted mainly of combining the two – Roman and Gallican – regional liturgies. Charlemagne (742–814) sent trained singers throughout

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