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71-603: Cornwall Iron Furnace is a designated National Historic Landmark that is administered by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in Cornwall , Lebanon County , Pennsylvania in the United States . The furnace was a leading Pennsylvania iron producer from 1742 until it was shut down in 1883. The furnaces, support buildings and surrounding community have been preserved as a historical site and museum, providing

142-536: A bloomery and later the more modern charcoal-fired blast furnace and the support buildings and mill village that was needed to house his workers. He named his operation Cornwall because his father, John Grubb had come from Cornwall, UK in 1677. Cornwall Iron Furnace was an excellent fit for the agricultural based economy of the Thirteen Colonies . Iron was needed to make into tools, nails and weapons. The official policy of Great Britain frowned on manufacturing in

213-434: A chemical reaction that reduces the iron oxide to the base metal which sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The exact nature of the reaction is: Fe 2 O 3 + 3 C O → 2Fe + 3CO 2 More precisely, the compressed air blown into the furnace reacts with the carbon in the fuel to produce carbon monoxide , which then mixes with the iron oxide , reacting chemically to produce iron and carbon dioxide , which leaks out of

284-642: A clerk for merchant Mark Biddle who was impressed with Coleman's penmanship and attention to detail. This led to Coleman being hired as a bookkeeper by prominent iron masters Curtis and Peter Grubb of the Hopewell Forge furnace. While working for the Grubbs, Coleman learned about the iron making industry and what it took to become an ironmaster. He also learned that operating an iron furnace took little cash, as workers were paid with supplies which were, in turn, acquired by barter from iron shipments. After six months at

355-524: A glimpse into Lebanon County's industrial past. The site is the only intact charcoal-burning iron blast furnace in its original plantation in the western hemisphere. Established by Peter Grubb in 1742, Cornwall Furnace was operated during the Revolution by his sons Curtis and Peter Jr. who were major arms providers to George Washington. Robert Coleman acquired Cornwall Furnace after the Revolution and became Pennsylvania's first millionaire . Ownership of

426-478: A letter, breaking the engagement. She wrote, “I do not wish, nor, since you are a gentleman, do I expect, to meet you again." As Buchanan dealt with the worst of the financial crisis on November 29, 1819, Ann Caroline traveled to Philadelphia on December 4 to visit her sister Margaret who had married United States Congressman Joseph Hemphill in September 1806. Just after midnight on December 9, 1819, Ann Caroline

497-740: A politician in Pennsylvania and leader of the Federalist Party in Lancaster County. In 1776, he attended the Pennsylvania State Constitutional Convention. During the Revolutionary War , Coleman served briefly in the Pennsylvania militia lieutenant, marching aid in the doomed defense of New York. However, he returned home to what was probably a more important service to the war effort—making iron. He served in

568-530: A short time before eventually running away. Robert Coleman rose from a holding clerkship at a prothonotary 's office in Philadelphia to bookkeeper at Cornwall Iron Furnace to becoming Pennsylvania's first millionaire. [2] Coleman arrived in Philadelphia from Ireland in 1764. After serving as a clerk and bookkeeper he went on to acquire a lease on Salford Forge near Norristown in 1773 and immediately made

639-506: A sizeable profit by manufacturing cannonballs and shot at Salford and Elizabeth Furnaces. He then used his profits to purchase a two thirds share of Elizabeth Furnace, shares of Cornwall and the Upper and Lower Hopewell Furnaces, (not the similarly named Hopewell Furnace ), and ownership of Speedwell Forge . Soon Coleman was able to construct Colebrook Furnace, purchase the rest of Elizabeth Furnace and acquired 80% ownership of Cornwall Furnace and

710-436: A special rotating container containing the pig iron. Some of the carbon is oxidised into carbon monoxide , CO, and carbon dioxide, CO 2 . This also oxidizes impurities in the pig iron. The container is rotated and the processed pig iron can be separated from the oxidised impurities. Before the mid 19th century, pig iron from the blast furnace was made into wrought iron , which is commercially pure iron. At that period, if steel

781-605: A trustee of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania , for 23 years. He also served on the board of Franklin College and was a director of the Bank of Pennsylvania. The Colemans moved to a large brick mansion on East King Street in Lancaster, Pennsylvania in 1809, along with their youngest children: thirteen-year-old Ann Caroline, nine-year-old Harriet, and seven-year-old Sarah. Harriet died

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852-408: A week. A large waterwheel powered the bellows. Carts loaded with charcoal passed to and fro between the coal barn and the furnace under a protective roof designed to keep the charcoal dry. Other wagons hauled the ore from the mine to the top of the furnace on the hillside. Workers then manually transported the charcoal and ore to the furnace. The guttermen worked at the base of the furnace. They raked

923-449: A year, before coming before the church council again, but by that time Coleman was too ill to protest. After her father's death in August 1825, Sarah hoped to marry Muhlenberg. However, in his will, Coleman gave his sons Edward and James the right to approve of Sarah's spouse, and tied such approval to her inheritance. Unfortunately, her brother Edward also dislike Muhlenberg, and even offered

994-799: Is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Only some 2,500, or roughly three percent, of over 90,000 places listed on the country's National Register of Historic Places are recognized as National Historic Landmarks. A National Historic Landmark District sometimes called a National Historical Park may include more than one National Historic Landmark and contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed or registered. Prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of

1065-574: The Continental Army 's need for ammunition in the Revolutionary War . He reduced costs by using Hessian prisoners as laborers to make cannonballs and grapeshot at the Elizabeth and Salford Furnaces. His resulting profits made him the first millionaire in Pennsylvania. Coleman used his profits to purchase all of the shares in the Elizabeth Furnace between 1780 and 1794. He also purchased

1136-844: The Historic American Buildings Survey amassed information about culturally and architecturally significant properties in a program known as the Historic Sites Survey. Most of the designations made under this legislation became National Historic Sites , although the first designation, made December 20, 1935, was for a National Memorial , the Gateway Arch National Park (then known as the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial) in St. Louis , Missouri. The first National Historic Site designation

1207-728: The Pennsylvania Legislature in 1783. In 1787, he was a delegate to the Pennsylvania Convention to ratify the United States Constitution . He helped edit the state's charter in 1790. He was a Presidential elector in 1792 . In 1795, Coleman was Captain of the Lancaster Troop of Light Horse. In this capacity, he led thirty-five cavalrymen to aid in the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion . He

1278-611: The Speedwell Forge from his father-in-law in 1785. He also acquired shares of the Upper and Lower Hopewell Forges (not the similarly named Hopewell Furnace ). He acquired a 1/6 interest in the Cornwall Furnace from the Grubbs in 1786, and an added 2/3 share in 1798, for a total of 5/6 ownership. This bought out Curtis Grubb and half Henry Bates Grubb's shares. Most importantly, the Cornwall Furnace purchase included an equal share in

1349-606: The United States Congress . In 1935, Congress passed the Historic Sites Act , which authorized the interior secretary authority to formally record and organize historic properties, and to designate properties as having "national historical significance", and gave the National Park Service authority to administer historically significant federally owned properties. Over the following decades, surveys such as

1420-425: The charcoal and the iron ore . The charcoal is produced by heating wood to produce the nearly pure carbon fuel needed for the refining process. The ore is broken into small pieces and roasted in a fire to remove any moisture in the ore. Any large impurities in the ore can be crushed and removed. Since slag from previous blooms may have a high iron content, slag from previous blooms can be broken up and recycled into

1491-583: The 29 room structure known today as Buckingham Mansion. In American Colonial history, the Iron Act, passed in 1750, was part of the British legislation designed to encourage the production of raw materials (including pig iron ) in colonial America, but to restrict their manufacture there into finished iron goods. Existing manufacturing works could continue, but new ones for certain processes were prohibited. The first furnace built by Peter Grubb at Cornwall Iron Furnace

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1562-819: The 50 states. New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states: Virginia , California , Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New York, the latter of which has the most NHLs of all 50 states. There are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia . Some NHLs are in U.S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states . There are 15 in Puerto Rico , the Virgin Islands , and other U.S. commonwealths and territories ; five in U.S.-associated states such as Micronesia ; and one in Morocco . Over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. Approximately half of

1633-453: The Coleman family are still in existence in the area, and they are known as Coleman Chapels .) George oversaw many improvements in production at Cornwall Iron Furnace. The bellows were replaced with "blowing tubs." The blowing tubs were piston-powered air pumps and containers that held compressed air and forced that air into the furnaces. The waterwheel was replaced by a steam engine in 1841. And

1704-523: The Coleman iron fortune with his brother, Robert. George acquired greater control of the ore mines at Cornwall and was able to experiment with iron furnaces that were fueled by anthracite coal instead of coke. He also invested in the expanding railroad , and built houses, a school and church for his employees. He was much loved by his community and went on to serve several times in the Pennsylvania State Legislature. (Several churches built by

1775-603: The Cornwall Ore Bank. This was one of the richest iron deposits in the United States. Coleman constructed Colebrook Furnace in 1791. He also acquired a share of the Martic Forge in 1801, His sons, James, Robert Bird, and William trained at Speedwell Forge when they came of age, moving on to manage other operations. In 1809, he delegated most of the operations to his sons. For more than three decades, Coleman served as

1846-547: The Hopewell Forge, he moved on to become a clerk at James Old's Quittapahilla Force furnace in Berks County, Pennsylvania . Shortly after his marriage to Old's daughter, Coleman leased the Salford Forge near Norristown, Pennsylvania in 1773. He leased the Elizabeth Furnace near Manheim in Lancaster County in 1776 from its owners creditors. Coleman turned the struggling ironworks into a profitable business by capitalizing on

1917-634: The National Historic Landmarks are privately owned . The National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks . A friends' group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect and promote National Historic Landmarks. If not already listed on

1988-760: The National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation; about three percent of Register listings are NHLs. Washington, D.C. is home to three specifically legislated exceptions to this rule: the White House , the United States Capitol , and the United States Supreme Court Building . All are designated as NHLs, but are not on the National Register. Robert Coleman (industrialist) Coleman

2059-548: The National Register, or as an NHL) often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the listing procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9, 1960, 92 places, properties, or districts were announced as eligible to be designated NHLs by U.S. Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton . Agreements of owners or responsible parties were subsequently obtained, but all 92 have since been considered listed on that 1960 date. The origins of

2130-485: The United States secretary of the interior because they are: More than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States. There are NHLs in all 50 states and the national capital of Washington, D.C. Three states ( Pennsylvania , Massachusetts , and New York ) account for nearly 25 percent of the nation's NHLs. Three cities within these states, Philadelphia , Boston , and New York City , respectively, all separately have more NHLs than 40 of

2201-431: The bloomery with the new ore. In operation, the bloomery is preheated by burning charcoal, and once hot, iron ore and additional charcoal are introduced through the top, in a roughly one-to-one ratio. Inside the furnace, carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of the charcoal reduces the iron oxides in the ore to metallic iron, without melting the ore; this allows the bloomery to operate at lower temperatures than

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2272-399: The bottom of the furnace and become welded together to form a spongy mass of the bloom. The bottom of the furnace also fills with molten slag, often consisting of fayalite , a compound of silicon , oxygen and iron mixed with other impurities from the ore. Because the bloom is highly porous, and its open spaces are full of slag, the bloom must later be reheated and beaten with a hammer to drive

2343-407: The bottom, one or more clay pipes enter through the side walls. These pipes, called tuyeres , allow air to enter the furnace, either by natural draft or by forced with a bellows . An opening at the bottom of the bloomery may be used to remove the bloom, or the bloomery can be tipped over and the bloom removed from the bottom. The first step taken before the bloomery can be used is the preparation of

2414-485: The carbon content to enable iron to be used for tools or as a construction material. There have been various processes for this. The earliest process was conducted in the finery forge . In the late 18th century, this began to be displaced by 'potting and stamping', but the most successful new process of the Industrial Revolution period was puddling . This is now done by forcing a jet of high-pressure oxygen into

2485-460: The church $ 5,000 only if the young rector was to leave. Perhaps broken hearted, Sarah traveled to Philadelphia in the fall of 1825 where she died at the age of 23. Coleman died in Lancaster at age 77. He was one of the wealthiest and most respected men in Pennsylvania at the time of his death. He left Dickinson College dividends and fifty shares in the Carlisle Bank worth $ 1,140. His legacy

2556-403: The clock in twelve-hour shifts. The iron works support staff included a company clerk, a host of teamsters , woodcutters, the colliers, farmers and household servants. There was a wide gap between the classes. Workers were housed in small homes and worked very hard for low wages. The owners and supervisors of the furnace lived in mansions with sizable servant staffs. Historians have likened life at

2627-519: The colonies, but England was no longer able to produce the needed iron for its needs let alone the needs of the colonists. In fact England had become dependent on importing iron from Sweden . Peter Grubb was not really an ironmaster, but a builder. In 1745 he leased the ironworks to a consortium, Cury and Company, for 25 years and returned to Wilmington. The consortium continued the operation, with ownership passing to Peter's sons, Curtis and Peter Jr. , after his death in 1754. The brothers took over

2698-405: The cooling sand and dug channels for the molten pig iron. Next, they stacked the bars of pig iron outside. The working conditions were very difficult. Temperatures inside the casting house reached as high as 160 °F (71 °C). Such a massive and difficult iron and charcoal making operation need a massive and hardened workforce . The furnace alone needed as many as sixty people working around

2769-474: The end of iron production in Cornwall. Cornwall Furnace no longer earned a profit in its last ten years of operation and the last owner, Robert Habersham Coleman, had it shut down on February 11, 1883. In 1932, the furnace and ancillary buildings were deeded by Margaret Coleman Buckingham and have since been restored and open to the public. National Historic Landmark A National Historic Landmark ( NHL )

2840-419: The evening she was so little indisposed that her sister visited the theatre. After night she was attacked with strong hysterical convulsions, which induced the family to send for physicians, who thought this would soon go off, as it did; but her pulse gradually weakened until midnight, when she died. Dr. Chapman, who spoke with Dr. Physick, says it is the first instance he ever knew of hysteria producing death.” At

2911-452: The fact that the magnetite at Cornwall was either very close to or on the surface of his land. He was ready to venture into the iron business and set about the task of building an iron "plantation". These centers of iron production were usually located well away from the heavily cleared farmlands and were nestled in the Ridge and Valley section of Pennsylvania. Grubb constructed his furnaces, first

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2982-578: The first National Historic Landmark was a simple cedar post, placed by the Lewis and Clark Expedition on their 1804 outbound trek to the Pacific in commemoration of the death from natural causes of Sergeant Charles Floyd . The cedar plank was later replaced by a 100 ft (30 m) marble obelisk. The Sergeant Floyd Monument in Sioux City, Iowa , was officially designated on June 30, 1960. NHLs are designated by

3053-614: The furnace and its surroundings was transferred to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1932. Cornwall Iron Furnace was one of many ironworks that were built in Pennsylvania over a sixty-year period, from 1716 to 1776. There were at least 21 blast furnaces, 45 forges , four bloomeries , six steel furnaces, three slitting mills, two plate mills, and one wire mill in operation in Colonial Pennsylvania . The furnaces at Cornwall Furnace went through two stages of technology. Peter Grubb

3124-650: The furnace at the top. In the beginning of the reaction cycle, the hot blast, also called "wind", containing pre-heated gas from Cowper stoves and air, is blasted into the furnace through tuyeres. The wind will ignite the coke and the Boudouard reaction will take place: C + O 2 → CO 2 CO 2 + C → 2 CO The temperature in the furnace typically runs at about 1500 °C, which is enough to also decompose limestone ( calcium carbonate ) into calcium oxide and additional carbon dioxide: CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2 The calcium oxide reacts with various acidic impurities in

3195-470: The furnace stack was rebuilt in the 1850s. The Colemans turned direct supervision of Cornwall Iron Furnace to John Reynolds in 1848, who acted as the guardian of the minor children of Thomas B. Coleman. He was the father of John F. Reynolds , a graduate of West Point . John Fulton Reynolds was commissioned a general and was the first Union General to fall at the Battle of Gettysburg . The elder Reynolds managed

3266-497: The furnace to life in a feudal barony . There were three groups of workers at Cornwall Iron Furnace: Free labor, indentured servants and slaves . Slavery was legal in Pennsylvania until it was gradually abolished beginning in 1780 when the importation of slaves was prohibited. The management of the furnace had quite a bit of trouble with the staff of indentured servants. These unskilled workers were imported from Germany , England and Ireland . Many of them worked at Cornwall for

3337-474: The furnace until his death in 1853. Robert Habersham Coleman was the fourth and last generation scion of the Colemans. He shut the facility in 1883, opening new facilities for the company. In 1881, at the time he took over his family's business, Coleman was worth about seven million dollars. By 1889 he was estimated to be worth thirty million dollars. By 1893 the fortune had vanished. One of his homes, Cornwall Hall,

3408-414: The iron (notably silica ), forming a slag containing calcium silicate , Ca Si O 3 which floats on the iron. The pig iron produced by the blast furnace is not useful for most purposes due to its high carbon content, around 4-5%, making it very brittle . Some pig iron is used to make cast iron goods, often being remelted in a foundry cupola. For other purposes further processing is needed to reduce

3479-427: The late 19th century most iron was being converted to steel before use. The blast furnaces at Cornwall Furnace needed a tremendous amount of charcoal in order to keep them fired and thereby create a steady production of iron. The making of the charcoal became an industry in itself. Hardwood trees were chopped down, dried, stacked and fired in 30-to-40-foot-diameter (9.1 to 12.2 m) pits. A collier carefully stacked

3550-441: The man she would marry, and in consequence of his coolness she wrote him a note telling him that she thought it was not regard for her that was his object, but her riches.” Buchanan replied, but did not give an explanation for his recent behavior. Then, when he returned to Lancaster from Philadelphia, he first visited a colleague's home and spent the afternoon with the man's wife and her unmarried sister. In anger, Ann Carolina sent

3621-486: The melting temperature of the ore. Since the desired product of a bloomery is easily forgeable, nearly pure iron, with a low carbon content, the temperature and ratio of charcoal to iron ore must be carefully controlled to keep the iron from absorbing the carbon and becoming unforgeable. Limestone could also be added to the bloomery, about 10% of the ore weight, which would act as flux and help carry away impurities. The small particles of iron produced in this way fall to

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3692-402: The molten slag out of it. Iron treated this way is said to be wrought , and the resulting nearly pure iron wrought iron . In 1742, Grubb replaced his bloomery with a 30-foot (9.1 m) high charcoal-fired cold blast furnace . The blast furnace burned hotter than the bloomery and was able to render molten pig iron (" charcoal iron ") from the ore. A blast furnace relies on the fact that

3763-522: The operation in 1765 and ran it quite successfully until the late 1780s. Curtis operated the Cornwall Furnace and lived on site; c1773 he built the original 19 rooms of the mansion that still stands prominently next to the property. Peter Jr. ran a forge at Hopewell , refining the pig iron produced by the furnace into more valuable bar iron. The ironworks were major suppliers to the Revolutionary War effort, and George Washington once visited to inspect

3834-508: The operation. Unfortunately for the Grubb family, as described in Curtis Grubb's biography , they were unable to retain control of the operation after Curtis' marriage in 1783. Most of the Grubb's holdings gradually fell into the hands of Robert Coleman , culminating in 1798. Coleman's son, William, was named manager of Cornwall Furnace and lived in the mansion; in 1865 the Colemans remodeled it into

3905-494: The ore mines nearby. His business acquisitions and the profits turned from them enabled him to become the first millionaire in the history of Pennsylvania. George Dawson Coleman was the grandson of Robert Coleman and son of James Coleman. George Dawson Coleman married Deborah Brown of Philadelphia and had several children including Ann Coleman who moved to France and revitalized Château de Villandry (alongside her husband Joachim Carvallo ). George Dawson Coleman controlled much of

3976-554: The time, some believe this to be a suicide, but there was no proof. However, Coleman would not let Buchanan walk as a mourner at her funeral. Buchanan was so devastated by her death that he vowed never to marry as "his affections were buried in the grave.” He eventually became the only bachelor President in the history of the United States. Another daughter, Sarah, also is believed to have committed suicide. Around 1824, William Augustus Muhlenberg , co- rector of St. James Episcopal Church in Lancaster, courted Sarah. Coleman served on

4047-462: The unwanted silicon and other impurities are lighter than the molten iron that is the main product. Grubb's furnace was built in the form of a tall chimney -like structure lined with refractory brick. Charcoal , limestone and iron ore (iron oxide) were poured in at the top, and air was blown in through tuyeres near the base. The resulting "blast" promotes combustion of the charcoal (more modern furnaces use coke or even anthracite ), creating

4118-406: The vestry of St. James and had a bitter dispute with Muhlenberg over the latter offering evening worship services. Coleman then banned Muhlenberg from his house. Muhlenberg wrote in his diary, “But for no earthly consideration whatever, not even the attainment of the dear object of my heart will I sacrifice what I believe to be the interests of my church. O lord, help me!'” The dispute continued for

4189-408: The wood around a chimney . The stack of wood was covered with leaves and dirt and was set on fire in the center. The fires were allowed to smolder for ten to fourteen days, under the careful, round the clock, supervision of the collier. The colliers were careful to make sure that enough heat was produced to expel moisture, tar and other substances from the wood without burning the wood up entirely. Wood

4260-412: The year after the move, followed by Robert a year later. In 1818, attorney James Buchanan started courting Anne Caroline who was a "catch" with her social standing and wealth. Buchanan did not have a status or background, but was beginning to gain a reputation in law and politics, having served as both prosecuting attorney and state assemblyman. The two became engaged in the summer of 1819. Coleman

4331-407: Was a bloomery . Grubb built this in 1737 to test the market value of his ore. It was an economical way to test the market without having to invest in building the much more efficient and profitable blast furnace. A bloomery is basically an enlarged blacksmith 's hearth. It consists of a pit or chimney with heat-resistant walls made of earth, clay, or stone. ( Sandstone was used at Cornwall.) Near

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4402-635: Was a "symbol of the rise, fame and decline of the "king" of Cornwall (Pennsylvania) during America's Gilded Age ." Cornwall Iron Furnace became obsolete by the 1880s. The Bessemer and open-hearth processes of creating steel , the replacement of charcoal with coke and anthracite coal , the discovery of iron deposits at the Iron Range in Minnesota near Lake Superior , and the building of modern factories in Pittsburgh , Steelton and Bethlehem brought about

4473-776: Was an elector again in 1796 ; this time he cast one of the three critical votes in the selecting John Adams , rather than Thomas Jefferson , as president. He also served as an Associate Judge from 1791 to 1811. He also made an unsuccessful run for the United States Senate. On October 4, 1773, Coleman married Anne Old (1756 – 1844), the oldest daughter of his employer James Old (1730 – 1809), at Reading Furnace, Chester County, Pennsylvania. The couple had nine children: William, Edward, Thomas Burd, Richard, James, Margaret, Ann Caroline, Harriet, and Sarah. In 1791, he built Elizabeth Farms house overlooking his Colebrook Furnace on 400 fertile acres. Starting in 1802, Coleman served as

4544-656: Was apparently unhappy with Buchanan's checkered history at Dickinson College where he was disciplined by faculty twice and dismissed on one occasion. During October and November 1819, Buchanan was busy with the Columbia Bridge Company Supreme Court case in Philadelphia, many clients impacted by a collapsing economy, and with the Missouri problem with regards to slavery at the legislature—and apparently neglected Anne Caroline. Town gossips concluded that Buchanan "was tremendously ambitious to make money; that he

4615-701: Was born and raised in Castlefin in County Donegal in the north-west of Ulster , the northern province in Ireland ; he was one of eight children of Thomas Coleman. Although born in Ireland, his family was English. He immigrated to America, arriving in Philadelphia in Pennsylvania in 1764 when he was sixteen years old. According to tradition, he brought with him two letters of introduction and three guineas. He worked as

4686-508: Was born in Delaware about 1702 and settled in what is now Lebanon County in 1734. He bought about 300 acres (1.2 km) of magnetite rich land. Grubb also noticed that his land had the other natural resources needed to produce iron. Namely, vast stands of timber for the production of charcoal , running water to operate the bellows, and an ample supply of limestone needed to add flux to the smelting furnaces. Grubb's plans were further helped by

4757-408: Was dead. Judge Thomas Kittera wrote, “At noon yesterday, I met this young lady on the street, in the vigour [ sic ] of health, and but a few hours after, her friends were mourning her death. She had been engaged to be married, and some unpleasant misunderstanding occurring, the match was broken off. This circumstance was preying on her mind. In the afternoon she was laboring under a fit of hysterics; in

4828-716: Was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17, 1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the survey data gathered under this legislation, and the National Historic Landmark program began to take more formal shape. When the National Register of Historic Places was established in 1966, the National Historic Landmark program was encompassed within it, and rules and procedures for inclusion and designation were formalized. Because listings (either on

4899-456: Was more affable and friendly to many young ladies than he ought to be as one betrothed; and finally, that he had been something less than an ardent suitor of Ann Coleman in recent weeks." They came to the untrue conclusion that Buchanan was marrying Anne Caroline for her money. In November, Anne Caroline heard the gossip and, as one of her friends wrote, began to believe “that Mr. Buchanan did not treat her with that affection that she expected from

4970-473: Was needed, particularly pure varieties of iron were heated with charcoal in a cementation furnace to produce blister steel (with about 1-2% carbon). This might be further purified using the crucible technique , but steel was too expensive to use on a large scale. However, with the introduction of the Bessemer process in the late 1850s and then other processes, the production of steel was dramatically increased. By

5041-399: Was not charred until just before it was needed to keep it from getting wet and becoming useless. The demand for charcoal was so tremendous that Cornwall Furnace used an entire acre of wood every day for making charcoal. [1] The furnace operated twenty four hours a day, seven days a week, except for when it was closed for repairs. Cornwall Iron Furnace was capable of producing 24 tons of iron

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