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60-688: The red variety of chalcedony has been known to be used as beads since the Early Neolithic in Bulgaria. The first faceted (with constant 16+16=32 facets on each side of the bead) carnelian beads are described from the Varna Chalcolithic necropolis (middle of the 5th millennium BC). The bow drill was used to drill holes into carnelian in Mehrgarh in the 4th–5th millennium BC. Carnelian was recovered from Bronze Age Minoan layers at Knossos on Crete in

120-568: A transitional Copper Age and the Bronze Age proper . He did not include the transitional period in the Bronze Age, but described it separately from the customary stone / bronze / iron system, at the Bronze Age's beginning. He did not, however, present it as a fourth age but chose to retain the tripartite system . In 1884, Gaetano Chierici , perhaps following the lead of Evans, renamed it in Italian as

180-403: A continuum, so the boundary between carnelian and sard is inherently blurry. [REDACTED] Media related to Carnelian at Wikimedia Commons Chalcolithic West Asia (6000–3500 BC) Europe (5500–2200 BC) Central Asia (3700–1700 BC) South Asia (4300–1800 BC) China (5000–2900 BC) The Chalcolithic ( /ˈkælkoʊˌlɪθɪk/ cal-co- LI -thik ) (also called

240-485: A form that demonstrated its use in decorative arts; this use dates to approximately 1800 BC . Carnelian was used widely during Roman times to make engraved gems for signet or seal rings for imprinting a seal with wax on correspondence or other important documents, as hot wax does not stick to carnelian. Sard was used for Assyrian cylinder seals , Egyptian and Phoenician scarabs , and early Greek and Etruscan gems. The Hebrew odem (also translated as sardius ),

300-726: A proposal by Possehl, and various radiocarbon dates from other sites, though giving 800 BCE as the enddate for the Mature Harappan phase: Rao 2005 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRao2005 ( help ) , and as summarized by Dikshit 2013 , compares as follows with the conventional datings, and Shaffer (Eras). While the Early Harappan Phase was proposed to start at ca. 3300 BCE, the Regionalisation Era has been proposed to start earlier, at 4000 BCE to ca. 5000 BCE. S. P. Gupta , taking into account new discoveries, periodised

360-607: A similar problem in the Greater Indus Valley. During his archaeological research in Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Pakistan, and India, Shaffer observed the fluid and adaptive nature of local customs in rural South Asia and the many ways that cultural practices interfaced with material culture. Based on both his extensive work in the field and these ethnographic observations, Shaffer developed a series of important critiques of archaeological theory. Shaffer and Liechtenstein argued that

420-569: A single source. Knowledge of the use of copper was far more widespread than the metal itself. The European Battle Axe culture used stone axes modeled on copper axes, even with moulding carved in the stone. Ötzi the Iceman , who was found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991 and whose remains have been dated to about 3300 BC, was found with a Mondsee copper axe. Examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on

480-458: Is "limited" and "restricted," putting too much emphasis on the mature phase. Scholarship in archaeology commonly uses a variation of the Three-age system developed by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen to divide past societies into a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. Although this system is very useful for its original purpose of organizing museum collections, it is unable to fully characterize

540-688: Is a Neo-Assyrian seal made of carnelian in the Western Asiatic Seals collection of the British Museum that shows Ishtar - Gula as a star goddess. She is holding a ring of royal authority and is seated on a throne. She is shown with the spade of Marduk (his symbol), Sibbiti (seven) gods, the stylus of Nabu and a worshiper. An 8th century BC carnelian seal from the collection of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford shows Ishtar-Gula with her dog facing

600-944: Is a Chalcolithic site in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent . It is located on the south bank of Ajay River in West Bengal . Blackware , painted Koshi ware, pottery, various ornaments made of pearl and copper, various types of tools, pieces of fabric woven from Shimul cotton thread, human and various animal skeletons, burnt clay fragments have been found at the site. In March 2018, archaeologists had discovered three carts and copper artifacts including weapons dating to 1800 BC in Sanauli village of Uttar Pradesh. The artifacts belongs to Ochre Coloured Pottery culture . Andean civilizations in South America appear to have independently invented copper smelting. The term "Chalcolithic"

660-605: Is also applied to American civilizations that already used copper and copper alloys thousands of years before Europeans immigrated. Besides cultures in the Andes and Mesoamerica, the Old Copper complex mined and fabricated copper as tools, weapons, and personal ornaments in an area centered in the upper Great Lakes region (present-day Michigan and Wisconsin ). The evidence of smelting or alloying that has been found in North America

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720-479: Is also documented at the nearby site of Tell Maghzaliyah , which seems to be dated even earlier, and completely lacks pottery. The Timna Valley contains evidence of copper mining in 7000–5000 BC. The process of transition from Neolithic to Chalcolithic in the Middle East is characterized in archaeological stone tool assemblages by a decline in high quality raw material procurement and use. This dramatic shift

780-443: Is an archaeological unit possessing traits sufficiently characteristic to distinguish it from all other units similarly conceived. According to Shaffer, there was considerable regional variation, as well as differences in cultural sequences, and these eras and phases are not evolutionary sequences, and cannot uniformly be applied to every site. According to Coningham and Young, A critical feature of Shaffer's developmental framework

840-605: Is doubtful; a lead bracelet, found in level XII of Yarim Tepe I, dated to the 6th millennium BC; a small cone-shaped piece of lead, found in the "Burnt House" in TT6 at Arpachiyah , dated to the Halaf period or slightly later than the Yarim Tepe bracelet; and more. Copper smelting is also documented at this site at about the same time period (soon after 6000 BC). However, the use of lead seems to precede copper smelting. Early metallurgy

900-480: Is from the Greek σάρξ ( sarx , "flesh"); compare the surer etymology of onyx , which comes from Greek ὄνυξ ( onyx , "claw, fingernail"), presumably because onyx with flesh-colored and white bands can resemble a fingernail. The names carnelian and sard are often used interchangeably, but they can also be used to describe distinct subvarieties. The general differences are as follows: All of these properties vary across

960-455: Is not another -lithic age. Subsequently, British scholars used either Evans's "Copper Age" or the term "Eneolithic" (or Æneolithic), a translation of Chierici's eneo-litica . After several years, a number of complaints appeared in the literature that "Eneolithic" seemed to the untrained eye to be produced from e-neolithic , "outside the Neolithic", clearly not a definitive characterization of

1020-582: Is not unique and others, such as Singh (2008), have presented similar categories which treat the Indus Valley and the Early Historic Traditions in very different ways and thus reinforce established divisions which prevent easy comparative discussion. A "similar framework" as Shaffer's has been used by Rita Wright , looking at the Indus "through a prism influenced by the archaeology of Mesopotamia," using

1080-456: Is seen throughout the region, including the Tehran Plain , Iran. Here, analysis of six archaeological sites determined a marked downward trend in not only material quality, but also in aesthetic variation in the lithic artefacts. Fazeli & Coningham use these results as evidence of the loss of craft specialisation caused by increased use of copper tools. The Tehran Plain findings illustrate

1140-427: Is subject to some dispute and a common assumption by archaeologists is that objects were cold-worked into shape. Artifacts from some of these sites have been dated to 6500–1000 BC, making them some of the oldest Chalcolithic sites in the world. Some archaeologists find artifactual and structural evidence of casting by Hopewellian and Mississippian peoples to be demonstrated in the archaeological record. In

1200-728: Is the fourth and final period of the Indus Valley Tradition. It refers to the fragmentation of the culture of the Integration Era. The Localisation Era comprises several phases: Gregory Possehl includes the Neolithic stage in his periodisation, using the term Indus Age for this broader timespan, Possehl arranged archaeological phases into a seven-stage sequence: According to Coningham & Young, Possehl's mixture of older periodisation (Mature Harappan), artefact-based descriptive classifications (Early Iron Age), and socio-economic processes (Developed Village Farming Communities)

1260-619: The Copper Age and Eneolithic ) was an archaeological period characterized by the increasing use of smelted copper . It followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age . It occurred at different periods in different areas, but was absent in some parts of the world, such as Russia, where there was no well-defined Copper Age between the Stone and Bronze Ages. Stone tools were still predominantly used during this period. The Chalcolithic covers both

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1320-539: The Iberian Peninsula . Pottery of the Beaker people has been found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have spread copper and bronze technologies in Europe, along with Indo-European languages. In Britain, copper was used between the 25th and 22nd centuries BC , but some archaeologists do not recognise a British Chalcolithic because production and use

1380-536: The Stone Age despite the use of copper. Today, Copper Age , Eneolithic , and Chalcolithic are used synonymously to mean Evans's original definition of Copper Age. The emergence of metallurgy may have occurred first in the Fertile Crescent . Lead may have been the first ore that humans smelted , since it can be easily obtained by heating galena . Possible early examples of lead smelting, supported by

1440-507: The eneo-litica , or "bronze–stone" transition. The phrase was never intended to mean that the period was the only one in which both bronze and stone were used. The Copper Age features the use of copper, excluding bronze; moreover, stone continued to be used throughout both the Bronze Age and the Iron Age . The part -litica simply names the Stone Age as the point from which the transition began and

1500-570: The "persistent configuration of basic technologies, as well as structure, in the context of geographical and temporal continuity". Shaffer divided the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era," and the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases. Each era can be divided into various phases. A phase

1560-631: The 1870s, when, on the basis of the significant number of large copper objects unearthed within the Carpathian Basin , he suggested that the previous threefold division of the Prehistoric Age – the Stone , Bronze and Iron Ages – should be further divided with the introduction of the Copper Age. In 1881, John Evans recognized that use of copper often preceded the use of bronze, and distinguished between

1620-648: The 5th millennium BC copper artifacts start to appear in East Asia, such as in the Jiangzhai and Hongshan cultures , but those metal artifacts were not widely used during this early stage. Copper manufacturing gradually appeared in the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BC). Jiangzhai is the only site where copper artifacts were found in the Banpo culture. Archaeologists have found remains of copper metallurgy in various cultures from

1680-449: The Copper Age. Around 1900, many writers began to substitute Chalcolithic for Eneolithic, to avoid the false segmentation. The term chalcolithic is a combination of two words- Chalco+Lithic, derived from the Greek words "khalkos" meaning "copper", and "líthos" meaning "stone". But "chalcolithic" could also mislead: For readers unfamiliar with the Italian language, chalcolithic seemed to suggest another -lithic age, paradoxically part of

1740-684: The Early Historic Period, "thus continuing the long-standing division between the Indus and Early Historic." According to Coningham & Young, this division was introduced in colonial times, with scholars who claimed that "a distinct cultural, linguistic, and social transformation lay between the Indus Civilisation and the Early Historic," and perpetuated by "a number of post-Independence South Asian scholars." Coningham & Young adopt Shaffer's terminology "to better understand and explore

1800-596: The Harappan Civilisation in a chronological framework that includes the Early, Mature, and Late Harappan Phase, and starts with the same date as the Regionalisation Era: The consensus on the dating of the Integration Era, or Urban, or Mature Harappan Phase, is broadly accepted to be 2600-1900 BC. Jonathan M. Kenoyer , and Coningham & Young, provide an overview of developmental phases of India in which

1860-691: The Indus Age and the Indus Tradition. Early surveys by Sir Aurel Stein in Balochistan led to the discovery of numerous prehistoric sites of unknown association. Following excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, the prehistoric sites in Sindh and Baluchistan were thought to represent a culture that migrated from Baluchistan to the Indus Valley to establish the Indus Valley Civilisation. This notion

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1920-531: The Indus Valley Civilisation and the Early Historic Period are combined. The post-Harappan phase shows renewed regionalisation, culminating in the integration of the Second Urbanisation of the Early Historic Period, starting ca. 600 BC, c.q. the Maurya Empire , ca. 300 BC. Coningham & Young note that most works on urbanisation in early Indian history focus on either the Indus Valley Civilisation or

1980-453: The Indus Valley within a tripartite evolutionary framework, of the birth, fluorescence, and death of a society in a fashion familiar to the social evolutionary concepts of Elman Service (1971)." According to Coningham and Young, it was "cemented [...] in common use" due to "the highly influential British archaeologists Raymond and Bridget Allchin [who] used similar subdivisions in their work." According to Coningham and Young, this approach

2040-422: The Indus cities, within a distinctly pervasive Indus tradition rather than lying outside a Pre-Urban or incipient urban phase. Coningham & Young raise theoretical concerns with Shaffer's periodisation, noting that ...it remains questionable whether there is sufficient difference and distinction between Shaffer’s definitions of Regionalisation and Localisation. Shaffer’s own definition (quoted earlier) observes

2100-622: The Mauryan period (c. 317 BC) was overcautious and that such a cultural and economic stage became evident in the archaeological record as early as 600 BC [...] This task is likely to be controversial and we acknowledge that not all scholars will be receptive. They also note that the term "Integration Era" may not be applicable to the whole of South Asia for the period of the Mature Harappan Civilisation, because "large swathes of northern and southern South Asia were unaffected by what was, on

2160-490: The Neolithic early farming settlements, and use a stage–phase model, often combining terminology from various systems. The most commonly used nomenclature classifies the Indus Valley civilisation into early, mature, and late Harappan phases. The Indus Valley Civilisation was preceded by local agricultural villages, from where the river plains were populated when water management became available, creating an integrated civilisation. This broader time range has also been called

2220-540: The colonial legacy of Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggot led to the projection of colonial stereotypes onto the ancient past. As a result of these critiques, Shaffer adapted the system developed by Willey and Phillips into one suitable for the Indus Valley Civilisation. In his original publication, this complex social formation was termed the Harappan Tradition , after the type site at Harappa, Punjab. This term Tradition stems from his concept of Cultural Tradition or

2280-406: The dynamic and fluid nature of human inter-settlement relationships. To address this issue, archaeologists Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips developed a system based on Culture-Historical Integration , or a heuristic concept for describing the distribution of "relatedness" across time and space. These concepts were later adapted by Jim G. Shaffer and Diane Liechtenstein as a potential solution to

2340-525: The early cold working (hammering) of near pure copper ores, as exhibited by the likes of North American Great Lakes Old Copper complex , from around 6,500 BC, through the later copper smelting cultures. The archaeological site of Belovode, on Rudnik mountain in Serbia , has the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting at high temperature, from c.  5,000 BC . The transition from Copper Age to Bronze Age in Europe occurred between

2400-520: The effects of the introduction of copper working technologies on the in-place systems of lithic craft specialists and raw materials. Networks of exchange and specialized processing and production that had evolved during the Neolithic seem to have collapsed by the Middle Chalcolithic ( c.  4500–3500 BC ) and been replaced by the use of local materials by a primarily household-based production of stone tools. Arsenical copper or bronze

2460-801: The existence of a few exotic black-slipped pottery items from the Indus Valley . In India, Chalcolithic culture flourished in mainly four farming communities – Ahar or Banas , Kayatha , Malwa , and Jorwe . These communities had some common traits like painted pottery and use of copper, but they had a distinct ceramic design tradition. Banas culture (2000–1600 BC) had ceramics with red, white, and black design. Kayatha culture (2450–1700 BC) had ceramics painted with brown colored design. Malwa culture (1900–1400 BC) had profusely decorated pottery with red or black colored design. Jorwe culture (1500–900 BC) had ceramics with matte surface and black-on-red design. Pandu Rajar Dhibi (2000–1600 BC)

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2520-417: The extreme rarity of native lead, include: lead beads , found on Level IX of Chatal/Çatal Hüyük in central Anatolia , though they might be made of galena, cerussite , or metallic lead, and accordingly might or might not be evidence of early smelting; a lead bead, found in a GK59 group test square in the 4th level of Jarmo , dated to the 7th millennium BCE, though it is small enough that its human usage

2580-697: The late 5th and the late 3rd millennium BC . In the Ancient Near East the Copper Age covered about the same period, beginning in the late 5th millennium BC and lasting for about a millennium before it gave rise to the Early Bronze Age . A study in the journal Antiquity from 2013 reporting the discovery of a tin bronze foil from the Pločnik archaeological site dated to c.  4,650 BC , as well as 14 other artefacts from Bulgaria and Serbia dated to before 4,000 BC, showed that early tin bronze

2640-674: The late fourth to the early third millennia BC. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the Hongshan culture (4700–2900) and copper slag at the Yuanwozhen site. This indicates that inhabitants of the Yellow River valley had already learned how to make copper artifacts by the later Yangshao period. In the region of the Aïr Mountains , Niger, independent copper smelting developed between 3000 and 2500 BC. The process

2700-430: The period. Originally, the term Bronze Age meant that either copper or bronze was being used as the chief hard substance for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Ancient writers, who provided the essential cultural references for educated people during the 19th century, used the same name for both copper- and bronze-using ages. The concept of the Copper Age was put forward by Hungarian scientist Ferenc Pulszky in

2760-498: The processes which led to the two main urban-focused developments in South Asia," and ...replace the traditional terminologies of 'Chalcolithic', Iron Age, Proto-Historic, Early Historic, and Mauryan with those of a 'Localisation Era' followed by an Era of 'Regionalisation' and an Era of 'Integration'. We argue that Kenoyer’s (1998) suggestion that the Era of Integration was only reached with

2820-582: The similarities of the two eras, with some differentiation in the form of contact between groups. The Early Food Producing Era corresponds to ca. 7000-5500 BCE. It is also called the Neolithic period. The economy of this era was based on food production, and agriculture developed in the Indus Valley. Mehrgarh Period I belongs to this era. The Regionalisation Era corresponds to ca. 4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer) or ca. 5000-2600 BCE (Coningham & Young). The Early Harappan phase belongs to this Era. According to Manuel, "the most significant development of this period

2880-547: The spade of Marduk and his red dragon. Although now the more common term, "carnelian" is a 16th-century corruption of the 14th-century word "cornelian" (and its associated orthographies corneline and cornalyn). Cornelian, cognate with similar words in several Romance languages , comes from the Mediaeval Latin corneolus , itself derived from the Latin word cornum , the cornel cherry , whose translucent red fruits resemble

2940-604: The stone. The Oxford English Dictionary calls "carnelian" a perversion of "cornelian," by subsequent analogy with the Latin word caro, carnis ("flesh"). According to Pliny the Elder , sard derived its name from the city of Sardis in Lydia from which it came, and according to others, may ultimately be related to the Persian word سرد ( sered , "yellowish-red"). Another possible derivation

3000-503: The terms Early Food Producing Phase, Pre-Urban Phase, Urban Phase, and Post-Urban Phase. Rao, who excavated Bhirrana , claims to have found pre-Harappan Hakra Ware in its oldest layers, dated at the 8th-7th millennium BCE. He proposes older datings for Bhirrana compared to the conventional Harappan datings, yet sticks to the Harappan terminology. This proposal is supported by Sarkar et al. (2016), co-authored by Rao, who also refer to

3060-497: Was a pottery workshop in province of Balochistan , Pakistan, that dates to 4,500 years ago; 12 blades and blade fragments were excavated there. These blades are 12–18 cm (5–7 in) long, 1.2–2.0 cm (0.5–0.8 in) wide, and relatively thin. Archaeological experiments show that these blades were made with a copper indenter and functioned as a potter's tool to trim and shape unfired pottery. Petrographic analysis indicates local pottery manufacturing, but also reveals

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3120-606: Was indeed taking place by the 4th millennium BC. Since the slag identified at Norşuntepe contains no arsenic, this means that arsenic in some form was added separately. A copper axe found at Prokuplje , Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper-making, c.  5500 BC (7,500 years ago). The find in June ;2010 extends the known record of copper smelting by about 800 years, and suggests that copper smelting may have been invented in separate parts of Asia and Europe at that time rather than spreading from

3180-578: Was more common than previously thought and developed independently in Europe 1,500 years before the first tin bronze alloys in the Near East . In Britain, the Chalcolithic is a short period between about 2,500 and 2,200 BC, characterized by the first appearance of objects of copper and gold, a new ceramic culture and the immigration of Beaker culture people, heralding the end of the local late Neolithic. The multiple names result from multiple definitions of

3240-487: Was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC. Periodisation of the Indus Valley civilisation Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation . While the Indus Valley Civilisation was divided into Early, Mature, and Late Harappan by archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler , newer periodisations include

3300-630: Was on a small scale. Ceramic similarities between the Indus Valley civilisation , southern Turkmenistan , and northern Iran during 4300–3300 BC of the Chalcolithic period suggest considerable mobility and trade. The term "Chalcolithic" has also been used in the context of the South Asian Stone Age . In Bhirrana , the earliest Indus civilization site, copper bangles and arrowheads were found. The inhabitants of Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan fashioned tools with local copper ore between 7000 and 3300 BC. The Nausharo site

3360-437: Was produced in eastern Turkey ( Malatya Province ) at two ancient sites, Norşuntepe and Değirmentepe , around 4200 BC. According to Boscher (2016), hearths or natural draft furnaces, slag , ore, and pigment had been recovered throughout these sites. This was in the context of Ubaid period architectural complexes typical of southern Mesopotamian architecture. Norşuntepe site demonstrates that some form of arsenic alloying

3420-554: Was refuted by M.R. Mughal based on his discovery of earlier occupational phases in the Cholistan Desert. The term Early Harappan was coined by M. R. Mughal in his dissertation at the University of Pennsylvania which provided a synthesis of his many surveys and studies throughout Pakistan. This classification is primarily based on Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, assuming an evolutionary sequence. According to Manuel, this division "places

3480-410: Was replacing the traditional Mesolithic/Neolithic, 'Chalcolithic'/Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan terminology with Eras which were intended to reflect the longer-term changes or processes which provided the platform for eventual complexity and urbanisation [...] Notably, Shaffer's categorisation also allowed scholars to frame sites such as Mehrgarh, accepted by all as partly ancestral to

3540-562: Was the first stone in the High Priest's breastplate , a red stone, probably sard but perhaps red jasper . In Revelation 4:3 , the One seated on the heavenly throne seen in the vision of John the apostle is said to "look like jasper and σαρδίῳ ( sardius transliterated)." And likewise it is in Revelation 21:20 as one of the precious stones in the foundations of the wall of the heavenly city. There

3600-434: Was the shift in population from the uplands of Baluchistan to the floodplains of the Indus Valley." This era was very productive in arts, and new crafts were invented. The Regionalisation Era includes the Balakot , Amri , Hakra , and Kot Diji Phases. The Integration Era refers to the period of the " Indus Valley civilisation ". It is a period of integration of various smaller cultures. The Localisation Era (1900-1300 BCE)

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