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136-473: Rodolfo Gonzales was born the youngest of Federico and Indalesia Gonzales's eight children in Denver, Colorado in 1928. His father had immigrated to Colorado at an early age from Chihuahua , Mexico. Even as an immigrant, Federico Gonzales taught the histories of Mexico's struggle against Spanish domination and against Porfirio Díaz . Federico Gonzales imparted his knowledge to his son, a struggle that culminated in

272-689: A gunman killed 10 people , including a police officer, in a King Soopers supermarket in Boulder . In an instance of anti-LGBT violence , a gunman killed 5 people at a nightclub in Colorado Springs during the night of November 19–20, 2022. Four warships of the U.S. Navy have been named the USS Colorado . The first USS Colorado was named for the Colorado River and served in the Civil War and later

408-557: A coalition geared towards improving the lives of youth in different areas donated 1,000 dollars in a food fund to the Chicano Youth Conference. Conference facilitators also provided food and housing for the visiting youth. “El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán” is an indigenous irredentist claim to Aztlán. This involves creating power in the Chicano community through community lead and serving organizations. It demonstrates that Chicanos are

544-525: A collective group, most of the United States was unaware of the unjust treatment of Mexican-American people. At the time this movement started the American Southwest had a population of over 5 million Mexican-Americans. People started taking action, hiking hundreds of miles to state capitals to bring awareness to their cause. In the spring of 1966 there was a march from Delano, California, to Sacramento,

680-515: A distance of 300 miles. That same summer farm workers hiked again in Texas to protest low wages from San Juan to Austin. Mexican-American leaders attended federally sponsored conferences and meetings, and walked out because their needs were not being accurately met or represented. This movement was given influence from the civil rights movement at the time, led by Martin Luther King Jr. Dr. Ralph Guzman,

816-456: A fiery tendency, which caused his uncle to say that "He was always popping off like a cork. So, we called him Corky." The nickname stuck. In February 1949, at the age of 21, Gonzales married Geraldine Romero, aged 17/18. They had eight children, who eventually took on their father's legacy of the Crusade for Justice. Gonzales had a successful professional boxing career and at one time was ranked as

952-616: A further refinement in Gonzáles’s efforts toward Chicano self-determination, the formation of the Colorado Raza Unida Party. The demonstration of “Chicano Youth Unity” became the “spirit of Denver.” Juan Lopez and Sam Kushner wrote about the Second Youth Conference calling it “a call for the creation of a Nation of Aztlán and the formation of an independent Chicano party, guided by the congress of Aztlán.”The conference

1088-400: A letter of resignation to Alfredo J. Hernandez, the chair of SER in Denver, stating, “S.E.R., is offering a gateway to a society that offers hypocrisy, sterilization, castration, and neurosis in exchange for the values of integrity that are inherent in our culture...I will not compromise my principles, me ideals and my honor to be seated at the same table with hypocrites.” Gonzales concluded that

1224-648: A major industry in Colorado. This period became known locally as the Carnation Gold Rush . Poor labor conditions and discontent among miners resulted in several major clashes between strikers and the Colorado National Guard , including the 1903–1904 Western Federation of Miners Strike and Colorado Coalfield War , the latter of which included the Ludlow massacre that killed a dozen women and children. Both

1360-481: A multi-issue, broad-based civil rights organization oriented toward nonviolence, came to symbolize Chicano self-determination and espoused a strong nationalist ideology that militant youth found extremely attractive. [….]” The Crusade for Justice was born out of the growing awareness of the inequality Mexican-Americans were experiencing in their daily lives within the United States. It became obvious through high school graduation statistics that "school systems have failed

1496-512: A private school in 1971 as a solution to the issues within the public education system. The school would focus on building students' self-esteem through culturally-relevant curricula. It was named after Tlatelolco , a square in Mexico City . During the conquest, it was the site of the last stand of the Aztecs , witnessing the massacre of thousands. In post-Revolutionary Mexico, Tlatelolco became home to

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1632-552: A professor in political science and an important figure in the Chicano movement stated in his Viva la Causa article that “Mexican-Americans have drawn from the dramatic struggle of the Negro people. But they have added artistry of their own”. The Chicano movement was not strictly centered around political activism, it was about art, music, vision, pride, culture, and value of participation. Gonzales made sure to lead with strength of character and humility, and encouraged his fellow activists to do

1768-579: A rapid decline in the organization's power, with membership waning significantly by the end of the 1920s. Colorado became the first western state to host a major political convention when the Democratic Party met in Denver in 1908. By the U.S. census in 1930 , the population of Colorado first exceeded one million residents. Colorado suffered greatly through the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl of

1904-407: A realization forced upon him by his status as an oppressed minority in the United States. Some scholars have credited Gonzales with authoring this historicized, politicized definition of what it is to be a "Chicano". The far-reaching effect of the poem is summed up by UC Riverside professor Juan Felipe Herrera : "Here, finally, was our collective song, and it arrived like thunder crashing down from

2040-636: A significant portion of the extreme weather occurs in the least populated areas of the state. Thunderstorms are common east of the Continental Divide in the spring and summer, yet are usually brief. Hail is a common sight in the mountains east of the Divide and across the eastern Plains, especially the northeast part of the state. Hail is the most commonly reported warm-season severe weather hazard, and occasionally causes human injuries, as well as significant property damage. The eastern Plains are subject to some of

2176-542: A symbolic association with the myth. Many Chicanos simply consider Aztlán as a spiritual guiding force rather than a tangible location. "Aztlán" has been used as the name of speculative fictional future states that emerge in the southwestern United States or Mexico after their governments suffer a collapse or major setback; examples appear in such works as the novels Heart of Aztlán (1976), by Rudolfo Anaya ; Warday (1984), by Whitley Strieber and James Kunetka ; The Peace War (1984), by Vernor Vinge ; The House of

2312-605: A third political party in favor of the Chicano community. In 1969 the “El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán” was implemented and developed designed to bring political, economic, social power of Chicano people. One idea from the plan was to create community controlled institutions like schools, law enforcement, production of resources, development of cultural values, etc. that resemble the Chicano people. Colorado Colorado ( / ˌ k ɒ l ə ˈ r æ d oʊ , - ˈ r ɑː d oʊ / KOL -ə- RAD -oh, -⁠ RAH -doh , other variants; Spanish: [koloˈɾaðo] )

2448-406: A top three Featherweight by Ring Magazine . However, he always lost when competing at the highest level and never received a shot at the title. He retired from the ring in 1955 after compiling a record of 63 wins, 11 losses, and 1 draw. Gonzales found the sport empowering, saying, "I bleed as the vicious gloves of hunger cut my face and eyes, as I fight my way from stinking barrios to the glamour of

2584-457: A white eagle to inspire the people, and they traveled until they came to Lake Texcoco and saw a great eagle sitting on a cactus, holding a serpent. There they built Tenochtitlán, the city that became the capital and center of the Aztec empire. Friar Diego Durán ( c.  1537 –1588), who chronicled the history of the Aztecs, wrote of Aztec emperor Moctezuma I 's attempt to recover the history of

2720-399: Is Aztatlan . Other proposed derivations include "place of whiteness" and "at the place in the vicinity of tools", sharing the āz- element of words such as teponāztli , "drum" (from tepontli , "log"). The concept of Aztlán as the place of origin of the pre-Columbian Mexican civilization has become a symbol for various Mexican ethno-nationalist movements. In 1969 the notion of Aztlán

2856-617: Is a state in the Western United States . It is one of the Mountain states , sharing the Four Corners region with Arizona , New Mexico , and Utah . It is also bordered by Wyoming to the north, Nebraska to the northeast, Kansas to the east, and Oklahoma to the southeast. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains , forests , high plains , mesas , canyons , plateaus , rivers , and desert lands. It encompasses most of

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2992-512: Is a mix of high plains, foothills, and mountains. Northwest and west Colorado are predominantly mountainous, with some desert lands mixed in. Southwest and southern Colorado are a complex mixture of desert and mountain areas. The climate of the Eastern Plains is semi-arid ( Köppen climate classification : BSk ) with low humidity and moderate precipitation, usually from 15 to 25 inches (380 to 640 millimeters) annually, although many areas near

3128-806: Is drained by the Colorado River. The South Park of Colorado is the region of the headwaters of the South Platte River. In south-central Colorado is the large San Luis Valley , where the headwaters of the Rio Grande are located. The northern part of the valley is the San Luis Closed Basin , an endorheic basin that helped created the Great Sand Dunes . The valley sits between the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and San Juan Mountains . The Rio Grande drains due south into New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. Across

3264-659: Is flat and rolling land. East of the Rocky Mountains is the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains , the section of the Great Plains within Colorado at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet (1,020 to 2,290 m). The Colorado plains are mostly prairies but also include deciduous forests , buttes , and canyons. Precipitation averages 15 to 25 inches (380 to 640 mm) annually. Eastern Colorado

3400-533: Is generally accessed through artesian wells . Heavy usage of these wells for irrigation purposes caused underground water reserves to decline in the region. Eastern Colorado also hosts a considerable amount and range of livestock, such as cattle ranches and hog farms. Roughly 70% of Colorado's population resides along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming , and Pueblo, Colorado . This region

3536-739: Is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. The Continental Divide of the Americas extends along the crest of the Rocky Mountains. The area of Colorado to the west of the Continental Divide is called the Western Slope of Colorado . West of the Continental Divide, water flows to the southwest via the Colorado River and the Green River towards the Gulf of California . Within

3672-521: Is known as "The Western Slope") are the cities of Grand Junction , Durango , and Montrose . Download coordinates as: To the west of the Great Plains of Colorado rises the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains . Notable peaks of the Rocky Mountains include Longs Peak , Mount Blue Sky , Pikes Peak , and the Spanish Peaks near Walsenburg , in southern Colorado. This area drains to the east and

3808-459: Is more complex than states outside of the Mountain States region. Unlike most other states, southern Colorado is not always warmer than northern Colorado. Most of Colorado is made up of mountains, foothills, high plains, and desert lands. Mountains and surrounding valleys greatly affect the local climate. Northeast, east, and southeast Colorado are mostly the high plains, while Northern Colorado

3944-427: Is offering a gateway to a society that offers hypocrisy, sterilization, castration, and neurosis in exchange for the values of integrity that are inherent in our culture—I will not compromise my principles, my ideals and my honor to be seated at the same table with hypocrites.” Dr. Ralph Guzman wrote: “This is a new era, and Mexican-Americans are activated Americans. They are telling American that they, too, are entering

4080-649: Is oppressed, we’re all oppressed. If one is hungry, we’re all hungry. We are one nation. La Nation de Aztlán.” The Currigan Exhibition Hall was offered as a place for the conference to be held, placed adjacently to the Denver PD. Gonzales refused the offer, stating “they wanted to seal us in and keep an eye on us”. Instead the conference was held at the Stockyard Stadium on 46th Avenue and Interstate 70. The conference events included political, educational, Aid Farmworkers workshops, and cultural performances where big figures in

4216-510: Is partially protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The "Front Range" includes Denver, Boulder , Fort Collins , Loveland, Castle Rock , Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley, and other townships and municipalities in between. On the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in western Colorado (which

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4352-546: Is presently mainly farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages and towns. Corn , wheat , hay , soybeans , and oats are all typical crops. Most villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator . Irrigation water is available from both surface and subterranean sources. Surface water sources include the South Platte , the Arkansas River , and a few other streams. Subterranean water

4488-465: Is still debated. Some scholars argue it is nearly or completely impossible to find the true location of Aztlán, due to all the conflicting accounts and narratives. The meaning of the name Aztlan is uncertain. One suggested meaning is "place of Herons" or "place of egrets "—the explanation given in the Crónica Mexicáyotl —but this is not possible under Nahuatl morphology : "place of egrets"

4624-457: Is the highest point in Colorado and the Rocky Mountains of North America. Colorado is the only U.S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado , and into Cheyenne County, Kansas , is the lowest in Colorado at 3,317 feet (1,011 m) elevation. This point, which is the highest low elevation point of any state,

4760-557: Is today the State of Colorado has been inhabited by Native Americans and their Paleoamerican ancestors for at least 13,500 years and possibly more than 37,000 years. The eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains was a major migration route that was important to the spread of early peoples throughout the Americas. The Lindenmeier site in Larimer County contains artifacts dating from approximately 8720 BCE. The Ancient Pueblo peoples lived in

4896-432: Is very prone to droughts. Most of the precipitation comes from thunderstorms, which can be severe, and from major snowstorms that occur in the winter and early spring. Otherwise, winters tend to be mostly dry and cold. In much of the region, March is the snowiest month. April and May are normally the rainiest months, while April is the wettest month overall. The Front Range cities closer to the mountains tend to be warmer in

5032-561: The Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. The treaty took effect on February 22, 1821. Having settled its border with Spain, the U.S. admitted the southeastern portion of the Territory of Missouri to the Union as the state of Missouri on August 10, 1821. The remainder of Missouri Territory, including what would become northeastern Colorado, became an unorganized territory and remained so for 33 years over

5168-574: The Asiatic Squadron , where it was attacked during the 1871 Korean Expedition . The later three ships were named in honor of the state, including an armored cruiser and the battleship USS Colorado , the latter of which was the lead ship of her class and served in World War II in the Pacific beginning in 1941. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor , the battleship USS Colorado was located at

5304-547: The Great Lakes region to hunt across the High Plains of Colorado and Wyoming . The Spanish Empire claimed Colorado as part of Nuevo México . The U.S. acquired the territorial claim to the eastern Rocky Mountains with the Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803. This U.S. claim conflicted with the claim by Spain to the upper Arkansas River Basin . In 1806, Zebulon Pike led a U.S. Army reconnaissance expedition into

5440-515: The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). Rodolfo’s mother, Indalesia Gonzales, died when Rodolfo was two years old; his father never remarried. His siblings were raised in Denver's tough "Eastside Barrio ", where the Great Depression took an even heavier toll on Mexican Americans. However, according to Gonzales, "though the Depression was devastating to so many, we, as children, were so poor that it

5576-517: The Plaza de las Tres Culturas , which celebrated Mexico's dual cultural heritage, seen as vindication of indigenous Mexico. It was also home to a community of scholars. In 1968, Tlatelolco became the staging ground for massive student protests, and saw yet another massacre, this time by Mexican forces. As such, the school's name evokes the history of duality, reconciliation, and hope for indigenous and Mestizo people. The Tlatelolco massacres were in response to

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5712-640: The Provisional Government of the Territory of Jefferson on August 24, 1859, but this new territory failed to secure approval from the Congress of the United States embroiled in the debate over slavery. The election of Abraham Lincoln for the President of the United States on November 6, 1860, led to the secession of nine southern slave states and the threat of civil war among the states . Seeking to augment

5848-605: The Rocky Mountains was a major migration route for early peoples who spread throughout the Americas. In 1848, much of the Nuevo México region was annexed to the United States with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . The Pike's Peak Gold Rush of 1858–1862 created an influx of settlers. On February 28, 1861, U.S. President James Buchanan signed an act creating the Territory of Colorado , and on August 1, 1876, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Proclamation 230 , admitting Colorado to

5984-632: The Sangre de Cristo Range to the east of the San Luis Valley lies the Wet Mountain Valley . These basins, particularly the San Luis Valley, lie along the Rio Grande rift , a major geological formation of the Rocky Mountains, and its branches. The Western Slope of Colorado includes the western face of the Rocky Mountains and all of the area to the western border. This area includes several terrains and climates from alpine mountains to arid deserts. The Western Slope includes many ski resort towns in

6120-699: The Southern Rocky Mountains , as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains . Colorado is the eighth most extensive and 21st most populous U.S. state. The United States Census Bureau estimated the population of Colorado at 5,877,610 as of July 1, 2023, a 1.80% increase since the 2020 United States census. The region has been inhabited by Native Americans and their ancestors for at least 13,500 years and possibly much longer. The eastern edge of

6256-545: The Territory of New Mexico , and the Territory of Utah . On April 9, 1851, Hispano settlers from the area of Taos settled the village of San Luis , then in the New Mexico Territory , as Colorado's first permanent Euro-American settlement , further cementing the traditions of New Mexican cuisine and New Mexico music in the developing Southern Rocky Mountain Front . In 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas persuaded

6392-574: The U.S. Congress to divide the unorganized territory east of the Continental Divide into two new organized territories, the Territory of Kansas and the Territory of Nebraska , and an unorganized southern region known as the Indian Territory . Each new territory was to decide the fate of slavery within its boundaries, but this compromise merely served to fuel animosity between free soil and pro-slavery factions. The gold seekers organized

6528-502: The UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center . Aztlán has been used for Chicanos to associate with their heritage and past. The myth has become a sort of shared memory that has united many people in the diasporic community. Like the Aztecs, Mexican-Americans migrated out of their homeland to seek a better life or more opportunities. Some Chicanos feel that they are repeating what their ancestors did or at least they feel

6664-542: The Union as the 38th state. The Spanish adjective "colorado" means "colored red" or "ruddy". Colorado is nicknamed the " Centennial State " because it became a state 100 years (and four weeks) after the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence . Denver is the capital, the most populous city , and the center of the Front Range Urban Corridor . Colorado Springs is the second most populous city of

6800-502: The Union cause. In 1862, a force of Texas cavalry invaded the Territory of New Mexico and captured Santa Fe on March 10. The object of this Western Campaign was to seize or disrupt Colorado and California's gold fields and seize Pacific Ocean ports for the Confederacy. A hastily organized force of Colorado volunteers force-marched from Denver City, Colorado Territory , to Glorieta Pass , New Mexico Territory, in an attempt to block

6936-597: The Ute Indian reservation in southwestern Colorado. The Ute people were removed from the San Juan Mountains the following year. The United States Congress passed an enabling act on March 3, 1875, specifying the requirements for the Territory of Colorado to become a state. On August 1, 1876 (four weeks after the Centennial of the United States ), U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signed a proclamation admitting Colorado to

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7072-470: The free Territory of Colorado . The original boundaries of Colorado remain unchanged except for government survey amendments. In 1776, Spanish priest Silvestre Vélez de Escalante recorded that Native Americans in the area knew the river as el Rio Colorado for the red-brown silt that the river carried from the mountains. In 1859, a U.S. Army topographic expedition led by Captain John Macomb located

7208-526: The question of slavery . After 11 years of war, Spain finally recognized the independence of Mexico with the Treaty of Córdoba signed on August 24, 1821. Mexico eventually ratified the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1831. The Texian Revolt of 1835–36 fomented a dispute between the U.S. and Mexico which eventually erupted into the Mexican–American War in 1846. Mexico surrendered its northern territory to

7344-581: The 1913–1914 Coalfield War and the Denver streetcar strike of 1920 resulted in federal troops intervening to end the violence. In 1927, the 1927-28 Colorado coal strike occurred and was ultimately successful in winning a dollar a day increase in wages. During it however the Columbine Mine massacre resulted in six dead strikers following a confrontation with Colorado Rangers . In a separate incident in Trinidad

7480-404: The 1930s, but a major wave of immigration following World War II boosted Colorado's fortune. Tourism became a mainstay of the state economy, and high technology became an important economic engine. The United States Census Bureau estimated that the population of Colorado exceeded five million in 2009. On September 11, 1957, a plutonium fire occurred at the Rocky Flats Plant , which resulted in

7616-436: The 1960s, Mexican intellectuals began to seriously speculate about the possibility that Mexcaltitán de Uribe in Nayarit was the mythical city of Aztlán. One of the first to consider Aztlán being associated with the island was historian Alfredo Chavero towards the end of the 19th century. Historical investigators after his death tested his proposition and considered it valid, among them Wigberto Jiménez Moreno. This hypothesis

7752-444: The Aztecs were subject to a tyrannical elite named the Azteca Chicomoztoca. Guided by their priest, the Aztec tribe fled. On the road, their god Huitzilopochtli forbade them to call themselves Azteca , telling them that they should be known as Mexica . Scholars of the 19th century—in particular Alexander von Humboldt and William H. Prescott —translated the word Azteca , as is shown in the Aubin Codex, to Aztec . Some say that

7888-419: The Chicano Movement in Denver. The movement was not strictly political in their organizing and education; "it was about art, music, vision, pride, culture, and value of participation." Gonzales explained. Gonzales took the ideas developed through the Crusade and implemented them at a personal level, making it into the political force it became. He had the courage, confidence, and ability to inspire greatness within

8024-401: The Chicano Movement. The plan called for the mass mobilization of Chicanos under the same identity, the Mestizo Nation. The new identity of Chicanos described them as a free community with their own culture. The Mestizo Nation also stated that Chicano community was free economically and that were together under the political beliefs. This idea was basically the starting point for the creation of

8160-436: The Democratic party centered around campaigning for Mayor of Denver Quigg Newton in 1947, registering Latino voters for the Democratic party in 1950 and leading the Colorado "Viva Kennedy" campaign. Gonzales's successful efforts to organize for change within the Democratic party became a crucial turning point toward Chicano Nationalist politics and the foundation of the Crusade for Justice in 1967. In 1966, Gonzales had written

8296-399: The Green River briefly crosses over into Colorado. The Western Slope of Colorado is drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries (primarily the Gunnison River , Green River , and the San Juan River ). The Colorado River flows through Glenwood Canyon , and then through an arid valley made up of desert from Rifle to Parachute , through the desert canyon of De Beque Canyon , and into

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8432-407: The Mexica by congregating warriors and wise men on an expedition to locate Aztlán. According to Durán, the expedition was successful in finding a place that offered characteristics unique to Aztlán. However, his accounts were written soon after the conquest of Tenochtitlan and before an accurate mapping of the American continent was made; therefore, he was unable to provide a precise location. During

8568-422: The Mexican-American people." More than any other demographic, Chicano students were ending up in labor jobs and prisons, dropping out, and not being given the same opportunities by their faculty/advisors as were white students. Due to the growing awareness within the Chicano community of the injustices they experienced within all layers of society, many gatherings, organizations and outreach programs participated in

8704-399: The Olmec-Xicalanca and Xaltocamecas are also said to come from Aztlán. Because of their common linguistic origin, those groups are termed collectively " Nahualteca " (Nahua people). These tribes subsequently left the caves and settled "near" Aztlán. The various descriptions of Aztlán apparently contradict each other. While some legends describe Aztlán as a paradise, the Codex Aubin says that

8840-463: The Olympics, where thousands of people were being displaced for an Olympic event. With his poem Yo soy Joaquín , known in English as I Am Joaquin , Gonzales shared his new cosmological vision of the "Chicano", who was neither Indian nor European, neither Mexican nor American, but a combination of all the conflicting identities. This new " raza ", or "race" found its roots in the Pre-Columbian civilizations, which he believed gave it rights to inhabit

8976-506: The Plan Espiritual de Aztlán exhorted those talented members of the community to use their abilities to advance la Causa ("the Cause"), Yo soy Joaquín provided a strong example. A feminist analysis of Gonzales's poem reveals that women are submissive, and extensions of the men to which they are related in communal and familial ways. Chicanas are depicted as faithful, long-suffering religious figures or family matriarchs who exist to support Chicano males. Women are only discussed in relation to

9112-409: The Rocky Mountains and towns west to Utah. It is less populous than the Front Range but includes a large number of national parks and monuments. The northwestern corner of Colorado is a sparsely populated region, and it contains part of the noted Dinosaur National Monument , which not only is a paleontological area, but is also a scenic area of rocky hills, canyons, arid desert, and streambeds. Here,

9248-455: The Scorpion (2002), by Nancy Farmer ; and World War Z (2006), by Max Brooks ; as well as the role-playing game Shadowrun , in which the Mexican government was usurped by the Aztechnology Corporation (1989). In Gary Jennings ' novel Aztec (1980), the protagonist resides in Aztlán for a while, later facilitating contact between Aztlán and the Aztec Triple Alliance just before Hernán Cortés ' arrival. " Strange Rumblings in Aztlan "

9384-527: The Southwestern United States. In 1864, Territorial Governor John Evans appointed the Reverend John Chivington as Colonel of the Colorado Volunteers with orders to protect white settlers from Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors who were accused of stealing cattle. Colonel Chivington ordered his troops to attack a band of Cheyenne and Arapaho encamped along Sand Creek. Chivington reported that his troops killed more than 500 warriors. The militia returned to Denver City in triumph, but several officers reported that

9520-421: The Territory. The Union Pacific linked up with the Central Pacific Railroad at Promontory Summit, Utah , on May 10, 1869, to form the First transcontinental railroad . The Denver Pacific Railway reached Denver in June of the following year, and the Kansas Pacific arrived two months later to forge the second line across the continent. In 1872, rich veins of silver were discovered in the San Juan Mountains on

9656-466: The Texans. On March 28, the Coloradans and local New Mexico volunteers stopped the Texans at the Battle of Glorieta Pass , destroyed their cannon and supply wagons, and dispersed 500 of their horses and mules. The Texans were forced to retreat to Santa Fe. Having lost the supplies for their campaign and finding little support in New Mexico, the Texans abandoned Santa Fe and returned to San Antonio in defeat. The Confederacy made no further attempts to seize

9792-573: The U.S. with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the war in 1848; this included much of the western and southern areas of Colorado. Most American settlers first traveled to Colorado through the Santa Fe Trail , which connected the U.S. to Santa Fe and the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro southward. Others were traveling overland west to the Oregon Country , the new goldfields of California , or

9928-461: The Union as the 38th state and earning it the moniker "Centennial State". The discovery of a major silver lode near Leadville in 1878 triggered the Colorado Silver Boom . The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 invigorated silver mining, and Colorado's last, but greatest, gold strike at Cripple Creek a few months later lured a new generation of gold seekers. Colorado women were granted

10064-603: The United States as a result of the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. Aztlán became a symbol for activists who allege that they have a legal and primordial right to the land. Some promoters of the Chicanos propose that a new ethnocentric government overthrow and replace the respective United States governments in the Southwest region, a República del Norte . Aztlán is also the name of the Chicano studies journal published by

10200-765: The Western Slope can be found at Colorado Mesa University in Grand Junction, Western Colorado University in Gunnison, Fort Lewis College in Durango, and Colorado Mountain College in Glenwood Springs and Steamboat Springs. The Four Corners Monument in the southwest corner of Colorado marks the common boundary of Colorado, New Mexico , Arizona , and Utah ; the only such place in the United States. The climate of Colorado

10336-502: The Western Slope. Grand Junction and Durango are the only major centers of television broadcasting west of the Continental Divide in Colorado, though most mountain resort communities publish daily newspapers. Grand Junction is located at the juncture of Interstate 70 and US 50, the only major highways in western Colorado. Grand Junction is also along the major railroad of the Western Slope, the Union Pacific . This railroad also provides

10472-612: The alpine snow melts by mid-August except for a few snow-capped peaks and a few small glaciers. The Colorado Mineral Belt , stretching from the San Juan Mountains in the southwest to Boulder and Central City on the front range, contains most of the historic gold- and silver-mining districts of Colorado. The 30 highest major summits of the Rocky Mountains of North America are all within the state. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,437.6 feet (4,400.58 m) elevation in Lake County

10608-524: The ancestral land of Aztlán . It was strengthened by conceptions such as those of José Vasconcelos , Mexico's Secretary of Education under the Revolutionary Álvaro Obregón , who proclaimed that the hope of humanity lay in the mixed " Raza Cósmica " of Latin America . But perhaps more than anywhere else, Joaquín, the archetypical Chicano, found hope for his future in his own personal and spiritual awakening,

10744-455: The arid desert of Grand Valley , where the city of Grand Junction is located. Also prominent is the Grand Mesa , which lies to the southeast of Grand Junction; the high San Juan Mountains, a rugged mountain range; and to the north and west of the San Juan Mountains, the Colorado Plateau . Grand Junction, Colorado , at the confluence of the Colorado and Gunnison Rivers, is the largest city on

10880-510: The biggest hail storms in North America. Notable examples are the severe hailstorms that hit Denver on July 11, 1990, and May 8, 2017, the latter being the costliest ever in the state. Aztl%C3%A1n Aztlán (from Nahuatl languages : Astatlan or romanized Aztlán , Nahuatl pronunciation: [ˈast͡ɬãːn̥] ) is the ancestral home of the Aztec peoples. The word "Aztec"

11016-493: The boundaries of the new Territory of Colorado exclusively by lines of latitude and longitude , stretching from 37°N to 41°N latitude, and from 102°02′48″W to 109°02′48″W longitude ( 25°W to 32°W from the Washington Meridian ). After 163 years of government surveys, the borders of Colorado were officially defined by 697 boundary markers and 697 straight boundary lines . Colorado, Wyoming , and Utah are

11152-625: The confluence of the Green River with the Grand River in what is now Canyonlands National Park in Utah . The Macomb party designated the confluence as the source of the Colorado River. On April 12, 1861, South Carolina artillery opened fire on Fort Sumter to start the American Civil War . While many gold seekers held sympathies for the Confederacy , the vast majority remained fiercely loyal to

11288-531: The country. A main idea that developed from this campaign was that everyone would be united in the struggle against oppression, exploitation, and racism. Like third-world countries who have fought against colonialism and the dominance of European and American imperialism, Chicanos began to see their struggles the same way: Chicanos too had been colonized by mainstream American Society, stripped of culture, and taught to be ashamed of who they were and where they came from. The best known Chicano Youth Liberation Conference

11424-483: The creation of this party was to unite the Mexican-American vote under one banner. The idea for this party was born at a pioneer youth conference in 1967, the conference was called by Reies Lopez Tijerina . The party gained immense support in Texas by 1970, and began spreading the party's reach shortly thereafter. Once it began to spread, there were issues due to a lack of coordination among different groups supporting

11560-600: The development of the Crusade. The Viva Kennedy Committee was created by John F. Kennedy's presidential campaign in the early 1960s, with goals to increase voter turnout in the Hispanic community for the election in 1960 against Nixon. This helped to politically activate many Chicanos, but the goal of the Viva Kennedy Campaign was to strengthen John F. Kennedy’s electoral support. The goal was not directly focused on Chicano power, pride, or justice. Gonzales recognized that if

11696-466: The disputed region. Colonel Pike and his troops were arrested by Spanish cavalrymen in the San Luis Valley the following February, taken to Chihuahua , and expelled from Mexico the following July. The U.S. relinquished its claim to all land south and west of the Arkansas River and south of 42nd parallel north and west of the 100th meridian west as part of its purchase of Florida from Spain with

11832-526: The entire Great Basin and all lands drained by the rivers Green , Grand , and Colorado . The federal government of the U.S. flatly refused to recognize the new Mormon government because it was theocratic and sanctioned plural marriage . Instead, the Compromise of 1850 divided the Mexican Cession and the northwestern claims of Texas into a new state and two new territories, the state of California ,

11968-479: The entire Chicano community. Gonzales became co-founder of a new political party, focused intensively on the rights of Mexican-American people. The party was called Congreso de Aztlán , referring to the land of the Southwest United States. Gonzales believed the only way to meet the goals created by the Crusade within the political world, was through the creation of a third political party. The main goal of

12104-548: The game; that they, too, belong. How well they succeed will be directly related to their own abilities to replace fragmented, weak organizations by effective political unity, to utilize ethnic identity as a root-force for progress within a larger society and to develop leadership dedicated to the fulfillment of the rising expectations of all Mexican-Americans”. And Gonzales did. In 1968, the Poor People's Campaign in Washington, D.C.,

12240-421: The goals of the Chicano movement were to be met, activism within the Chicano community needed to be led by those who were impacted by the injustices experienced, and so action towards creating a movement from within the Chicano community started to take form. The Viva Kennedy Campaign helped to spark the beginning of the Crusade, but that was exactly what it was, the beginning. Before Chicanos started protesting as

12376-480: The heavens. Every little barrio newspaper from Albuquerque to Berkeley published it. People slapped mimeographed copies up on walls and telephone poles." It was so influential that it was turned into a play by Luis Valdez 's Teatro Campesino that toured nationally. It is seen as a foundational work of the burgeoning Chicano Art Movement that accompanied, complimented, and enhanced the Chicano Movement, and, as

12512-479: The infamous Columbine High School massacre in 1999 which made international news, where two gunmen killed 12 students and one teacher, before committing suicide. The incident has spawned many copycat incidents . On July 20, 2012, a gunman killed 12 people in a movie theater in Aurora . The state responded with tighter restrictions on firearms, including introducing a limit on magazine capacity. On March 22, 2021,

12648-567: The interior of the Rocky Mountains are several large parks which are high broad basins. In the north, on the east side of the Continental Divide is the North Park of Colorado . The North Park is drained by the North Platte River , which flows north into Wyoming and Nebraska. Just to the south of North Park, but on the western side of the Continental Divide, is the Middle Park of Colorado , which

12784-523: The lake around the Aztlán island was called Metztliapan or "Lake of the Moon." Another version reads: One day a man heard a bird calling to him, saying, "Go now, go now." When the man told the chief about the bird, the chief was relieved. He had known his people must find a new land, their own land, but had waited for a sign. So the people gathered and began a long march. They followed an idol of Huitzilopochtli that

12920-617: The local and state Democrat and Republican parties , particularly in the governor's office and city governments of Denver, Cañon City , and Durango . A particularly strong element of the Klan controlled the Denver Police . Cross burnings became semi-regular occurrences in cities such as Florence and Pueblo. The Klan targeted African-Americans, Catholics , Eastern European immigrants, and other non-White Protestant groups. Efforts by non-Klan lawmen and lawyers including Philip Van Cise led to

13056-673: The mayor was accused of deputizing members of the KKK against the striking workers. More than 5,000 Colorado miners—many immigrants—are estimated to have died in accidents since records were first formally collected following an 1884 accident in Crested Butte that killed 59. In 1924, the Ku Klux Klan Colorado Realm achieved dominance in Colorado politics. With peak membership levels, the Second Klan levied significant control over both

13192-404: The men, by the topics at hand. Gonzales believed strongly in the power of educating the people around him, and bringing the Chicano community together to hear one another's voices. He said, “You have to get people involved, and the best way to do that is to live among the people, to hear what they are saying and to agitate them”. The development of the Crusade for Justice helped gain momentum for

13328-542: The midst and aftermath of the Civil War, many discouraged prospectors returned to their homes, but a few stayed and developed mines, mills, farms, ranches, roads, and towns in Colorado Territory. On September 14, 1864, James Huff discovered silver near Argentine Pass , the first of many silver strikes. In 1867, the Union Pacific Railroad laid its tracks west to Weir, now Julesburg , in the northeast corner of

13464-469: The movement like Gonzales, Manuel Lopez, and the Latin Defense Organization spoke. Other workshops included women’s workshops that focused on family and equality for women. “If we had liberated mothers, we would be free too. My question is now, when?” 3,000 to 5,000 youth were expected to attend the conference. People travelled from all over the country to attend the conference. The Model Cities,

13600-516: The naval base in San Diego, California, and thus went unscathed. The most recent vessel to bear the name USS Colorado is Virginia-class submarine USS Colorado (SSN-788) , which was commissioned in 2018. Colorado is notable for its diverse geography, which includes alpine mountains, high plains, deserts with huge sand dunes, and deep canyons. In 1861, the United States Congress defined

13736-788: The new Mormon settlements of the State of Deseret in the Salt Lake Valley , avoided the rugged Southern Rocky Mountains , and instead followed the North Platte River and Sweetwater River to South Pass (Wyoming) , the lowest crossing of the Continental Divide between the Southern Rocky Mountains and the Central Rocky Mountains. In 1849, the Mormons of the Salt Lake Valley organized the extralegal State of Deseret , claiming

13872-490: The only ones that truly have rights to the land. “El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán, which sought to organize the Chicano people around a nationalist program. Also what came out of this conference was this statement by the Revolutionary Caucus, which sought a politics beyond narrow nationalism, toward more class analysis and internationalism”. This was a beginning point of a more internationalist outlook for certain sections of

14008-473: The only states that have their borders defined solely by straight boundary lines with no natural features. The southwest corner of Colorado is the Four Corners Monument at 36°59′56″N , 109°2′43″W . The Four Corners Monument , located at the place where Colorado, New Mexico , Arizona , and Utah meet, is the only place in the United States where four states meet. Approximately half of Colorado

14144-610: The party. There were not enough resources to keep the party going, and it died out within the decade. Tijerina became one of Gonzales’ largest rivals throughout the parties expansion. Tijerina believed that the Congreso de Aztlán was doing more to separate the Mexican American vote than to unite it, and that working within the Democratic Party would provide larger success in the political world in reaching their goals. Gonzales’ found

14280-620: The plains and into the foothills, there is a wide variety of climate types. Locations merely a few miles apart can experience entirely different weather depending on the topography. Most valleys have a semi-arid climate, not unlike the eastern plains, which transitions to an alpine climate at the highest elevations. Microclimates also exist in local areas that run nearly the entire spectrum of climates, including subtropical highland ( Cfb/Cwb ), humid subtropical ( Cfa ), humid continental ( Dfa/Dfb ), Mediterranean ( Csa/Csb ) and subarctic ( Dfc ). Extreme weather changes are common in Colorado, although

14416-561: The political power of the Union states , the Republican Party -dominated Congress quickly admitted the eastern portion of the Territory of Kansas into the Union as the free State of Kansas on January 29, 1861, leaving the western portion of the Kansas Territory, and its gold-mining areas, as unorganized territory. Thirty days later on February 28, 1861, outgoing U.S. President James Buchanan signed an Act of Congress organizing

14552-444: The population of Colorado resides, lies in a pronounced precipitation shadow as a result of being on the lee side of the Rocky Mountains. In summer, this area can have many days above 95 °F (35 °C) and often 100 °F (38 °C). On the plains, the winter lows usually range from 25 to −10 °F (−4 to −23 °C). About 75% of the precipitation falls within the growing season, from April to September, but this area

14688-759: The possible location of Aztlán and tend to place it either in northwestern Mexico or the Southwestern United States , although whether Aztlán represents a real location or a mythological one is a matter of debate. Nahuatl histories relate that seven tribes lived in Chicomoztoc , or "the Place of the Seven Caves". Each cave represented a different Nahua group: the Xochimilca , Tlahuica , Acolhua , Tlaxcalteca , Tepaneca , Chalca , and Mexica . Along with these people,

14824-527: The preset guidelines of the United States judicial system, not to start a war. Gonzales’s character is illustrated in the letter he wrote to S.E.R. (Service-Employment-Redevelopment), an organization that focuses on the needs of Hispanics, specifically in the areas of education, training, employment, business, and economic opportunity. Gonzales wrote to the Chairman of the Board of S.E.R., Mr. Alfredo J. Hernández: “S.E.R.,

14960-576: The priests carried. As they went, Huitzilopochtli spoke through the priests and prepared the people for the greatness of their empire to come. He explained that they should travel until they came to a large lake; there, they should look for another sign—an eagle in a cactus. The journey took 200 years, and the people settled for a while in the Toltec capital of Tollan. Some people stayed in Tollan and some moved on. From time to time, Huitzilopochtli changed himself into

15096-418: The quest for identity as popularized by Gonzáles and Luis Valdez, which were “eagerly received by students searching for an ideology for the emerging student movement.” Chicano youth believed that for Mexican Americans to be instilled with pride in their ethnicity and culture; Chicanos needed to reject the dominant values of American Society, including capitalism and white Anglo-Saxon Protestant culture. During

15232-483: The right to vote on November 7, 1893, making Colorado the second state to grant universal suffrage and the first one by a popular vote (of Colorado men). The repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893 led to a staggering collapse of the mining and agricultural economy of Colorado, but the state slowly and steadily recovered. Between the 1880s and 1930s, Denver's floriculture industry developed into

15368-464: The ring and the lights of fame or mutilated sorrow." His success in boxing lent him a prominence that he would later capitalize upon during his political career. He was inducted into the Colorado Sports Hall of Fame in 1988. When Gonzales turned to politics, he was ranked the 5th best boxer in the world. He once fought Willie Pep , losing by decision. Gonzales's early political involvement in

15504-405: The rivers are semi-humid climate. The area is known for its abundant sunshine and cool, clear nights, which give this area a great average diurnal temperature range . The difference between the highs of the days and the lows of the nights can be considerable as warmth dissipates to space during clear nights, the heat radiation not being trapped by clouds. The Front Range urban corridor, where most of

15640-486: The same. Anti-violence was a tactic the Crusade for Justice aimed for, but it was not a goal as it was in the following of MLK. Gonzales knew that the Crusade was being watched closely by the FBI and even the mafia, Chicanos were often mislabeled, and their motives and tactics were demonized by the media. There were no chances to be taken. The Crusade’s goal was to bring justice, to introduce change through struggle, operating within

15776-466: The schools, that the youth had been conditioned to accept the dominant values of American society, particularly individualism, at the expense of their Mexican identity. The result had been the psychological ‘colonization’ of Mexican American youth.” The first conference in March 1969 produced a document, “Plan Espiritual de Aztlán,” which developed the concept of ethnic nationalism and self-determination in

15912-471: The significant plutonium contamination of surrounding populated areas. From the 1940s and 1970s, many protest movements gained momentum in Colorado, predominantly in Denver. This included the Chicano Movement , a civil rights , and social movement of Mexican Americans emphasizing a Chicano identity that is widely considered to have begun in Denver. The National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference

16048-477: The so-called battle was a blatant massacre of Indians at peace, that most of the dead were women and children, and that the bodies of the dead had been hideously mutilated and desecrated. Three U.S. Army inquiries condemned the action, and incoming President Andrew Johnson asked Governor Evans for his resignation, but none of the perpetrators was ever punished. This event is now known as the Sand Creek massacre . In

16184-643: The southeast, ultimately either via the Mississippi River or the Rio Grande into the Gulf of Mexico . The Rocky Mountains within Colorado contain 53 true peaks and 58 named peaks that are 14,000 feet (4,267 m) or higher in elevation above sea level, known as fourteeners . These mountains are largely covered with trees such as conifers and aspens up to the tree line , at an elevation of about 12,000 feet (3,658 m) in southern Colorado to about 10,500 feet (3,200 m) in northern Colorado. Above this tree line, only alpine vegetation grows. Much of

16320-670: The southward migration began on May 24, 1064, CE, after the supernova Crab Nebula events from May to July 1054. Each of the seven groups is credited with founding a different major city-state in Central Mexico. A 2004 translation of the Anales de Tlatelolco gives the only known date related to the exit from Aztlán; day-sign "4 Cuauhtli" (Four Eagle) of the year "1 Tecpatl " (Knife) or 1064–1065, and correlated to January 4, 1065. Cristobal del Castillo mentions in his book " Fragmentos de la Obra General Sobre Historia de los Mexicanos ", that

16456-456: The state. Residents of the state are known as Coloradans , although the antiquated "Coloradoan" is occasionally used. Major parts of the economy include government and defense, mining, agriculture , tourism, and increasingly other kinds of manufacturing. With increasing temperatures and decreasing water availability, Colorado's agriculture forestry, and tourism economies are expected to be heavily affected by climate change . The region that

16592-466: The structure the Crusade for Justice developed later. The goal was to gain a following, and to spread education on the injustices Chicanos were experiencing. To begin with, the Fisherman's meetings were only open to men. When the conversation started to cross over from culture to more political issues, such as border laws, women demanded a part in the discussions, as they were directly affected just as much as

16728-470: The struggle for Chicano liberation. The statement of the “revolutionary caucus” also came out of that conference. “For 144 years we have been trying to peacefully coexist but no peace has come to our communities. Revolution is the only means available to us. We owe no allegiance, no respect, to any of the laws of this racist country. Our liberation struggle is a war of survival.” The second Chicano Youth Liberation Conference (CYLC) in 1970 (March 25) represented

16864-456: The suffering of Chicano males, and to serve as a support as for the epic heroes referenced in the body of the poem. His granddaughter is Serena Gonzales-Gutierrez , a member of the Colorado House of Representatives Gonzales and other Chicano activists had developed the image of the Crusade for Justice as ‘the vanguard’ of the rapidly growing Chicano Power Movement. “The Crusade, originally

17000-495: The tracks for Amtrak 's California Zephyr passenger train, which crosses the Rocky Mountains between Denver and Grand Junction. The Western Slope includes multiple notable destinations in the Colorado Rocky Mountains, including Glenwood Springs , with its resort hot springs, and the ski resorts of Aspen , Breckenridge , Vail , Crested Butte , Steamboat Springs , and Telluride . Higher education in and near

17136-436: The two-party system offered little benefit. Believing Chicanos could not rely on the "gringo establishment" to provide education, economic stability, or social acceptance, he sought alternatives. The Crusade for Justice was an idea born from the Fisherman's meetings. These meetings were the original organization of Chicanos discussing issues surrounding Chicano rights and culture. The Fisherman meetings started out small, without

17272-681: The valleys and mesas of the Colorado Plateau in far southwestern Colorado. The Ute Nation inhabited the mountain valleys of the Southern Rocky Mountains and the Western Rocky Mountains , even as far east as the Front Range of the present day. The Apache and the Comanche also inhabited the Eastern and Southeastern parts of the state. In the 17th century, the Arapaho and Cheyenne moved west from

17408-455: The week-long conference, Gonzáles stressed the need for students and youth to play a revolutionary role in the movement. Conference participants were told that previous generations of students, after completing academic programs and becoming professionals, had abdicated their responsibility to their people, to their familia de La Raza. This abdication of responsibility was attributed to the fact that Mexican American students had been Americanized by

17544-467: The winter due to Chinook winds which warms the area, sometimes bringing temperatures of 70 °F (21 °C) or higher in the winter. The average July temperature is 55 °F (13 °C) in the morning and 90 °F (32 °C) in the afternoon. The average January temperature is 18 °F (−8 °C) in the morning and 48 °F (9 °C) in the afternoon, although variation between consecutive days can be 40 °F (22 °C). Just west of

17680-514: Was derived from the Nahuatl a ztecah , meaning "people from Aztlán." Aztlán is mentioned in several ethnohistorical sources dating from the colonial period, and while each cites varying lists of the different tribal groups who participated in the migration from Aztlán to central Mexico , the Mexica who later founded Mexico-Tenochtitlan are mentioned in all of the accounts. Historians have speculated about

17816-427: Was hardly noticed". The Gonzaleses were a very poor family. Gonzales, along with his mother and siblings worked in the fields, and his father worked hard in the coal mines to provide for the family throughout Gonzales's life. Gonzales attended high schools in Colorado and New Mexico while simultaneously working in the beet fields, and graduated from Manual High School at the age of 16. Since his youth he demonstrated

17952-479: Was held in 1969, brought together large numbers of Chicano youth from throughout the United States, and provided them with opportunities to express views on self-determination and involved in both on-campus and community politics. This conference brought youth of all types - students, non-students, militant youth from the street gangs (vatos locos), and ex-convicts (pintos) to discuss community issues and politics of 3,000 people. The conference emphasized themes related to

18088-438: Was held in Colorado in March 1969. In 1967, Colorado was the first state to loosen restrictions on abortion when governor John Love signed a law allowing abortions in cases of rape, incest, or threats to the woman's mental or physical health. Many states followed Colorado's lead in loosening abortion laws in the 1960s and 1970s. Since the late 1990s, Colorado has been the site of multiple major mass shootings , including

18224-540: Was introduced by the poet Alurista (Alberto Baltazar Urista Heredia) at the National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference held in Denver, Colorado by the Crusade for Justice. There he read a poem, which has come to be known as the preamble to El Plan de Aztlán or as "El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán" due to its poetic aesthetic. For some Chicanos, Aztlán refers to the Mexican territories purchased by

18360-533: Was originally started by Martin Luther King Jr. After his assassination, associates took on the campaign that represented the first broad-based initiatives introduced by Mexican Americans, African Americans, and Native Americans to promote economic justice and land rights. Participants attended seminars and panels on organizing, activism, and self-defense as well as Chicano culture and gender issues. The activities within these seminars, workshops, and panels were painting, poetry, debates, and networking to other activists in

18496-480: Was sponsored by the Crusade for Justice, expanding their reach to encourage and mobilize the youth within the community. The second CYLC had 14 states represented that included civil and human rights organizations bringing anyone in the Chicano movement together. “Enemies and friends gathered and got along all under one roof.” Political figures, community members, militant groups, and gangs were all represented uniting under La Raza. La Raza meant, “we are one nation. If one

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